Old page wikitext, before the edit ($1) (old_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Romanian writer (1852–1912)}}
{{redirect-distinguish-for|Caragiale|Lamborghini Ion Caragiale|other people|Caragiale (surname)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = Ion Luca Caragiale
| honorific_suffix =
| image = Ion Luca Caragiale - Foto02.jpg
| caption =
| pseudonym = Car., Ein rumänischer Patriot, Luca, i, Ion, Palicar
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1852|01|30}}
| birth_place = [[I.L. Caragiale, Dâmbovița|Haimanale]], [[Wallachia]] (today [[I. L. Caragiale, Dâmbovița]], [[Romania]])
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1912|6|9|1852|1|30}}
| death_place = [[Berlin]], [[German Empire]]
| occupation = {{plainlist|
* [[short story]] [[writer]]
* [[playwright]]
* [[journalist]]
* [[essayist]]
* actor
* [[translator]]
* [[poet]]
* [[civil servant]]
* [[restaurateur]]
* [[political commentator]]
}}
| nationality = [[Romanians|Romanian]]
| period = 1873–1912
| genre = [[Drama]], [[comedy]], [[tragedy]], [[short story]], [[sketch story]], [[novella]], [[satire]], [[parody]], [[aphorism]], [[Fantasy literature|fantasy]], [[reportage]], [[memoir]], [[fairy tale]], [[epigram]], [[fable]]
| subject = Everyday life, morals and manners, politics, social criticism, literary criticism, music criticism
| movement = ''[[Junimea|Junimism]]'', [[Naturalism (literature)|Naturalism]], [[Neoclassicism]], [[Neo-romanticism|Neoromanticism]], [[Literary realism|Realism]]
| signature = ILCaragialeSignature.png
| website =
| spouse = Alexandrina Burelly
| children = {{flatlist|
* [[Mateiu Caragiale|Mateiu]]
* [[Luca Caragiale|Luca]]
* Ecaterina
}}
}}
'''Ion Luca Caragiale''' ({{IPA-ro|iˈon ˈluka karaˈdʒjale}}; {{OldStyleDate|13 February|1852| 30 January}}<ref name="birthd">According to his birth certificate, published and discussed by Constantin Popescu-Cadem in ''Manuscriptum'', Vol. VIII, Nr. 2, 1977, pp. 179–184</ref> – 9 June 1912), commonly referred to as '''I. L. Caragiale''', was a [[Romanians|Romanian]] playwright, short story writer, poet, theater manager, political commentator and journalist. Leaving behind an important cultural legacy, he is considered one of the greatest playwrights in [[Romanian language]] and [[Literature of Romania|literature]], as well as one of its most important writers and a leading representative of [[Romanian humor|local humour]]. Alongside [[Mihai Eminescu]], [[Ioan Slavici]] and [[Ion Creangă]], he is seen as one of the main representatives of ''[[Junimea]]'', an influential literary society with which he nonetheless parted during the second half of his life. His work, spanning four decades, covers the ground between [[Neoclassicism]], [[Realism (arts)|Realism]], and [[Naturalism (literature)|Naturalism]], building on an original synthesis of foreign and local influences.
Although few in number, Caragiale's plays constitute the most accomplished expression of Romanian theatre, as well as being important venues for criticism of late-19th-century Romanian society. They include the [[Comedy|comedies]] ''[[O noapte furtunoasă]]'', ''[[Conu Leonida față cu reacțiunea]]'', ''[[O scrisoare pierdută]]'', and the [[tragedy]] ''[[Năpasta]]''. In addition to these, Caragiale authored a large number of essays, articles, short stories, [[novella]]s and [[Sketch story|sketch stories]], as well as occasional works of poetry and autobiographical texts such as ''[[Din carnetul unui vechi sufleur]]''. In many cases, his creations were first published in one of several magazines he edited — ''[[Claponul]]'', ''[[Vatra (literary magazine)|Vatra]]'', and ''[[Epoca (Romania)|Epoca]]''. In some of his later fiction writings, including ''[[La hanul lui Mânjoală]]'', ''[[Kir Ianulea]]'', ''[[Abu-Hasan]],'' ''[[Pastramă trufanda]]'' and ''[[Calul dracului]]'', Caragiale adopted the [[Fantasy literature|fantasy]] genre or turned to [[historical fiction]].
Ion Luca Caragiale was interested in the politics of the [[Kingdom of Romania|Romanian Kingdom]], and oscillated between the [[Liberalism and radicalism in Romania|liberal current]] and [[conservatism]]. Most of his [[Satire|satirical]] works target the liberal [[Republicanism|republicans]] and the [[National Liberal Party (Romania, 1875)|National Liberals]], evidencing both his respect for their rivals at ''Junimea'' and his connections with the literary critic [[Titu Maiorescu]]. He came to clash with National Liberal leaders such as [[Dimitrie Sturdza]] and [[Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu]], and was a lifelong adversary of the [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolist]] poet [[Alexandru Macedonski]]. As a result of these conflicts, the most influential of Caragiale's critics barred his access to the cultural establishment for several decades. During the 1890s, Caragiale rallied with the [[Radicalism (historical)|radical]] movement of [[George Panu]], before associating with the [[Conservative Party (Romania, 1880–1918)|Conservative Party]]. After having decided to settle in [[Berlin]], he came to voice strong criticism for Romanian politicians of all colours in the wake of the [[1907 Romanian Peasants' Revolt]], and ultimately joined the [[Conservative-Democratic Party]] of [[Tache Ionescu]].
He was both a friend and rival to writers such as Mihai Eminescu, Titu Maiorescu, and [[Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea]], while maintaining contacts with, among others, the ''Junimist'' essayist [[Iacob Negruzzi]], the [[Socialism|socialist]] philosopher [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]], the literary critic [[Paul Zarifopol]], the poets [[George Coșbuc]] and [[Mite Kremnitz]], the psychologist [[Constantin Rădulescu-Motru]], and the [[Transylvania]]n poet and activist [[Octavian Goga]]. Ion Luca was the nephew of [[Costache Caragiale|Costache and Iorgu Caragiale]], who were major figures of the 19th century Romanian theatre. His sons [[Mateiu Caragiale|Mateiu]] and [[Luca Caragiale|Luca]] were both [[Modernism|modernist]] writers.
==Biography==
===Background and name===
Ion Luca Caragiale was born into a family of [[Greeks in Romania|Greek]] descent, whose members first arrived in Wallachia soon after 1812, during the rule of [[List of rulers of Wallachia|Prince]] [[Ioan Gheorghe Caragea]]—Ștefan Caragiali, as his grandfather was known locally, worked as a cook for the court in [[Bucharest]].<ref name="heinischeviasi">{{in lang|ro}} Rosana Heinisch, [http://www.evenimentul.ro/articol/grecii-mai-interesati-de.html "Grecii, mai interesaţi de opera lui I.L.Caragiale decit conaţionalii săi"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927213358/http://www.evenimentul.ro/articol/grecii-mai-interesati-de.html|date=27 September 2007}}, in ''[[Evenimentul]]'', 8 June 2002</ref><ref name="nastasa">{{in lang|ro}} Lucian Nastasă, [http://www.history-cluj.ro/Istorie/cercet/Nastasa/Despre_genealogie.pdf ''Genealogia între ştiinţă, mitologie şi monomanie''], p. 18, at the [[Romanian Academy]]'s George Bariţ Institute of History, Cluj-Napoca. Retrieved 3 July 2007.</ref>
Ion Luca's father, who reportedly originated from the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] capital of [[Istanbul]], settled in [[Prahova County]] as the curator of the Mărgineni Monastery<ref>Mîndra, pp. 5–6, 272; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 176</ref> (which, at the time, belonged to the [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] [[Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai|Saint Catherine's Monastery]] of [[Mount Sinai]]). Known to locals as Luca Caragiali, he later built a reputation as a lawyer and judge in [[Ploiești]], and married Ecaterina, the daughter of a merchant from the [[Transylvania]]n town of [[Brașov]].<ref name="nastasa"/><ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 176">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 176</ref><ref name="enemagist">{{in lang|ro}} Georgeta Ene,{{cite web|url=http://www.itcnet.ro/history/archive/mi2002/current1/mi12.htm |title="Caragiale la Berlin: Exil voluntar sau "misiune sub acoperire"? (I)" |access-date=7 December 2008|url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007125154/http://www.itcnet.ro/history/archive/mi2002/current1/mi12.htm |archive-date=7 October 2007 }} , in ''[[Magazin Istoric]]'', January 2002, pp. 12–17</ref> Her [[maiden name]] was given as ''Alexovici'' (''Alexevici'')<ref name="nastasa"/><ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 176"/><ref name="enemagist"/> or as ''Karaboa'' (''Caraboa'').<ref>Mîndra, pp. 6, 272</ref> She is known to have been Greek herself,<ref name="nastasa"/><ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="holbanemigr">{{in lang|ro}} [[Ioan Holban]], [http://www.evenimentul.ro/articol/i.l.-caragiale-fiul-unui.html "I.L. Caragiale, fiul unui emigrant din Cefallonia (III)"], in ''[[Evenimentul]]'', 25 May 2002.</ref> and, according to historian Lucian Nastasă, some of her relatives were [[Hungarians|Hungarian]] members of the Tabay family.<ref name="nastasa"/> The couple also had a daughter, named Lenci.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 18, 308</ref>
Ion Luca's uncles, [[Costache Caragiale|Costache and Iorgu Caragiale]], managed theater troupes and were very influential figures in the development of early Romanian theatre — in Wallachia and [[Moldavia]] alike.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 73–76; Cioculescu, pp. 6–7; Mîndra, pp. 5–6; Perpessicius, pg. 237; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 176</ref><ref name="danmanuca">Dan Mănucă, "Caragiale", in Jean-Claude Polet, ''Patrimoine littéraire européen: anthologie en langue française'', De Boeck Université, Paris, 2000, pp. 478–479; {{ISBN|2-8041-3161-0}}</ref> Luca Caragiali had himself performed with his brothers during his youth, before opting to settle down.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 300–301; Mîndra, pp. 5–6; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 176</ref> All three had stood criticism for not taking part in the [[Wallachian Revolution of 1848|Wallachian Revolution]], and defended themselves through a [[brochure]] printed in 1848.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 300–301</ref> The Caragiali brothers had two sisters, Ecaterina and Anastasia.<ref name="tudorovicizf">{{in lang|ro}} Doina Tudorovici [http://www.zf.ro/ziarul-de-duminica/caragiale-quot-ai-avesi-tomnilor-cu-numele-meu-quot-3000264/ "Caragiale: 'ai avesi, tomnilor, cu numele meu?'"], in ''[[Ziarul Financiar]]'', 5 July 2000.</ref>
Especially in his old age, the writer emphasized his family's humble background and his status as a [[self-made man]].<ref name="nastasa"/><ref name="tudorovicizf"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 14, 29; Mîndra, pg. 5; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 197–198; Vol. III, pg. 74</ref> On one occasion, he defined the landscape of his youth as "the quagmires of Ploiești".<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 197">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 197</ref> Although it prompted his biographer [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]] to define him as "a [[Proletariat|proletarian]]", Caragiale's account was disputed by several other researchers, who noted that the family had a good social standing.<ref name="nastasa"/>
Ion Luca Caragiale was discreet about his ethnic origin for the larger part of his life. In parallel, his foreign roots came to the attention of his adversaries, who used them as arguments in various polemics.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="tudorovicizf"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 124–125</ref><ref name="antohi">[[Sorin Antohi]], [http://www.iwm.at/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=235&Itemid=411 "Romania and the Balkans. From Geocultural Bovarism to Ethnic Ontology"], in ''Tr@nsit online'', Nr. 21/2002, [[Institut für die Wissenschaften vom Menschen (IWM)|Institut für die Wissenschaften vom Menschen]]</ref> As his relations with Caragiale degenerated into hostility, [[Mihai Eminescu]] is known to have referred to his former friend as "that Greek swindler".<ref name="coreseminescumicle">Cristea-Enache, chapter "Corespondenţa inedită Mihai Eminescu – Veronica Micle. Filigranul geniului"</ref> Aware of such treatment, the writer considered all references to his lineage to be insults.<ref name="tudorovicizf"/> On several occasions, he preferred to indicate that he was "of obscure birth".<ref name="nastasa"/>
[[File:Caragiale costum balcanic.jpg|thumb|Caragiale in [[Balkans|Balkan]] costume, photographed ca. 1900]]
Nevertheless, as literary critic [[Tudor Vianu]] noted, Caragiale's outlook on life was explicitly [[Balkan]]ic and [[Orient]]al, which, in Vianu's view, mirrored a type "which must have been found in his lineage".<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 195">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 195</ref> A similar opinion was expressed by [[Paul Zarifopol]], who speculated that Caragiale's conservative mindset was possibly owed to the "lazyness of one true Oriental"<ref name="zarifintrod">{{in lang|ro}} [[Paul Zarifopol]], [http://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Introduceri_la_edi%C5%A3ia_critic%C4%83_I.L._Caragiale%2C_opere ''Introduceri la ediţia critică I.L. Caragiale, opere''] (wikisource)</ref> (elsewhere, he referred to the writer as "a lazy southerner, fitted with definitely supranormal intelligence and imagination").<ref name="zarifpubl">{{in lang|ro}} [[Paul Zarifopol]], ''[http://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Arti%C5%9Fti_%C5%9Fi_idei_literare_rom%C3%A2ne:Publicul_%C5%9Fi_arta_lui_Caragiale Artiști și idei literare române: Publicul și arta lui Caragiale]'' (wikisource)</ref>
In his main work on the history of Romanian literature, [[George Călinescu]] included Caragiale among a group of "Balkan" writers, whose [[middle class]] status and often foreign origin, he argued, set them apart irrespective of their period—others in this category were, in chronological order, [[Anton Pann]], [[Tudor Arghezi]], [[Ion Minulescu]], [[Urmuz]], [[Mateiu Caragiale]], and [[Ion Barbu]].<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 53–54</ref> In contrast, critic [[Garabet Ibrăileanu]] proposed that Caragiale's Wallachian origin was of particular importance, serving to explain his political choices and alleged social bias.<ref name="ibrextremacar">{{in lang|ro}} [[Garabet Ibrăileanu]], [http://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Spiritul_critic_%C3%AEn_cultura_rom%C3%A2neasc%C4%83:Spiritul_critic_%C3%AEn_Muntenia_-_Critica_social%C4%83_extrem%C4%83:_Caragiale ''Spiritul critic în cultura românească: Spiritul critic în Muntenia – Critica socială extremă: Caragiale''] (wikisource)</ref>
On one occasion, Caragiale mentioned that his paternal grandfather was "a Greek cook".<ref name="tudorovicizf"/> In several contexts, he referred to his roots as being in the island of [[Hydra, Saronic Islands|Hydra]].<ref name="heinischeviasi"/> In one of his photographs, he posed in Oriental costume and sitting cross-legged, which was interpreted by Vianu as an additional reference to his Balkan background.<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, pg. 308</ref> Two of his biographers, Zarifopol and [[Șerban Cioculescu]], noted that a section of Caragiale's [[fairy tale]] ''[[Kir Ianulea]]'' was a likely self-reference: in that fragment of text, the [[Devil in Christianity|Christian Devil]], disguised as an [[Arvanites|Arvanite]] trader, is shown taking pride in his [[Romanian language]] skills.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 204–205</ref>
Investigations carried out by the Center of Theatric Research in [[Athens]], [[Greece]] and made public in 2002 offered an alternative take on the Caragiales' origin. According to this perspective, Ștefan Caragiali was a native of [[Kefalonia]], and his original surname, ''Karaialis'', was changed on Prince Caragea's request.<ref name="heinischeviasi"/><ref name="holbanemigr"/> Various authors also believe that Caragiale's ancestors were [[Albanians of Romania|Albanian]]<ref name="danmanuca"/> or [[Aromanians|Aromanian]].<ref>David Binder, "Vlachs: a Peaceful Balkan People", in ''Mediterranean Quarterly'', Volume 15, Number 4, Fall 2004.</ref>
Originally, Ion Luca was known as ''Ioanne L. Caragiali''.<ref>Mîndra, pg. 7</ref><ref name="adevcasele">{{in lang|ro}} [http://www.adevarul.ro/articole/casele-lui-caragiale/5553 "Casele lui Caragiale"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080312130811/http://www.adevarul.ro/articole/casele-lui-caragiale/5553 |date=12 March 2008 }}, in ''[[Adevărul]]'', 30 January 2002.</ref> His family and friends knew him as ''Iancu'' or, rarely, ''Iancuțu''—both being antiquated [[hypocoristic]]s of ''Ion''.<ref>Mîndra, pg. 6</ref> The definitive full version of his name features the syllable ''ca'' twice in a row, which is generally avoided in Romanian due to its scatological connotations. It has however become one of the few [[Phonaesthetics|cacophonies]] accepted by the [[Romanian Academy]].<ref>Alexandru Vlad, "Gramatica diavolului", in ''[[Vatra (literary magazine)|Vatra]]'', 3-4/2005, pg. 2</ref>
===Early years===
[[File:Ilcaragiale adolescent.jpg|thumb|The adolescent Caragiale]]
Born in the village of [[I. L. Caragiale, Dâmbovița|Haimanale]], Prahova County (the present-day I. L. Caragiale [[commune in Romania|commune]], [[Dâmbovița County]]), Caragiale was educated in Ploiești. During his early years, as he later indicated, he learned reading and writing with a teacher at the [[Romanian Orthodox Church]] of Saint George.<ref name="tudorovicizf"/><ref name="Mîndra, p. 272">Mîndra, p. 272</ref> Soon after, he was taught [[Romanian language|literary Romanian]] by the Transylvanian-born Bazilie Dragoșescu (whose influence on his use of the language he was to acknowledge in one of his later works).<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 126; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 176</ref> At the age of seven, he witnessed enthusiastic celebrations of the [[Danubian Principalities]]' union, with the election of Moldavia's [[Alexandru Ioan Cuza]] as [[List of rulers of Wallachia|Prince]] of Wallachia;<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 192</ref> Cuza's subsequent reforms were to be an influence on the political choices Caragiale made in his old age. The new ruler visited his primary school later in 1859, being received with enthusiasm by Dragoșescu and all his pupils.<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 126</ref>
Caragiale completed [[Gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]] at the Sfinții Petru și Pavel school in the city, and never pursued any form of higher education.<ref>Mîndra, pg. 272; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 176</ref> He was probably enlisted directly in the second grade, as records do not show him to have attended or graduated the first year.<ref>Mîndra, pp. 6–8, 272</ref> Notably, Caragiale was taught history by Constantin Iennescu, who was later the mayor of Ploiești.<ref name="Mîndra, p. 9">Mîndra, pg. 9</ref> The young Caragiale opted to follow in his uncles' footsteps, and was taught declamation and mimic art by Costache at the latter's theater school in [[Bucharest]], where he was accompanied by his mother and sister.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 6–7; Mîndra, pp. 8, 272; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 176</ref> It is also probable that he was a [[supernumerary actor]] for the [[National Theatre Bucharest|National Theater Bucharest]].<ref name="Mîndra, p. 272"/> He was not able to find full employment in this field, and, around the age of 18, worked as a [[copyist]] for the Prahova County Tribunal.<ref>Mîndra, pp. 8, 272; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 177</ref> Throughout his life, Caragiale refused to talk about his training in the theater, and hid it from the people closest to him (including his wife Alexandrina Burelly, who came from an upper middle class environment).<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 6">Cioculescu, pg. 6</ref>
In 1866, Caragiale witnessed Cuza's toppling by a coalition of [[Conservative Party (Romania, 1880–1918)|conservatives]] and [[Liberalism and radicalism in Romania|liberals]] — as he later acknowledged in his ''Grand Hotel "Victoria Română"'', he and his friends agreed to support the move by voting "yes" during a subsequent [[plebiscite]], and, with tacit approval from the new authorities, even did so several times each.<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 55; Ornea, pg. 213</ref> By the age of 18, he was an enthusiastic supporter of the liberal current, and sympathized with its [[Republicanism|republican]] ideals. In 1871, he witnessed the [[Republic of Ploiești]] — a short-lived stated created by the liberal groups, in an attempt to oust ''[[Domnitor]]'' [[Carol I of Romania|Carol I]] (the future [[King of Romania]]).<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 8, 18–19, 270–271; Mîndra, pg. 8; Ornea, pg. 216</ref> Later in life, as his opinions veered towards [[conservatism]], Caragiale ridiculed both the attempted ''[[coup d'état]]'' and his participation in it.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pg. 128; Cioculescu, pp. 18–19, 270–271; Ornea, pp. 215–216</ref>
He returned to Bucharest later that year, after manager [[Mihail Pascaly]] hired him as one of the [[Prompter (theatre)|prompts]] at the National Theater in the capital, a period about which he reminisced in his ''[[Din carnetul unui vechi sufleur]]''.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Mîndra, pp. 9, 272; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 177</ref> The poet [[Mihai Eminescu]], with whom Ion Luca was to have cordial relations as well as rivalries, had previously been employed for the same position by the manager Iorgu Caragiale.<ref>Perpessicius, pp. 150, 190, 235–236, 290–291; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 176–77.</ref> In addition to his growing familiarity with the [[Repertoire (theatre)|repertoire]], the young Caragiale educated himself by reading the philosophical works of [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment-era]] ''[[philosophe]]s''.<ref name="danmanuca"/> It was also recorded that, at some point between 1870 and 1872, he was employed in the same capacity by the [[National Theatre Iași|Moldavian National Theater in Iași]].<ref>Mîndra, pp. 9, 272</ref> During the period, Caragiale also [[Proofreading|proofread]] for various publications and worked as a [[tutor]].<ref name="Mîndra, p. 9"/>
===Literary debut===
[[File:Ion Luca Caragiale - Foto08.jpg|thumb|Caragiale in his youth]]
Ion Luca made his literary debut in 1873, at the age of 21, with poems and humorous chronicles printed in [[G. Dem. Teodorescu]]'s liberal-inspired satirical magazine, ''Ghimpele''. He published relatively few articles under various [[pen name]]s — among them ''Car.'', the contraction of his family name, and the more elaborate ''Palicar''.<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 60</ref> He mostly performed basic services for the editorial staff and its [[printing press]], given that, after Luca Caragiali died in 1870, he was the sole provider for his mother and sister.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 18, 60; Mîndra, pg. 9</ref> Following his return to Bucharest, he became even more involved with the [[Radicalism (historical)|radical]] and republican wing of the liberal trend—a movement commonly referred to as "the Reds". As he later confessed, he frequently attended its congresses, witnessing the speeches held by Reds leader [[C. A. Rosetti]]; he thus became intimately acquainted with a [[Populism|Populist]] discourse, which he later [[Parody|parodied]] in his works.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 19–21; Ornea, pp. 205–206, 209–217</ref> Working for ''Ghimpele'', he made the acquaintance of republican writer [[N. T. Orășanu]].<ref name="Mîndra, p. 273">Mîndra, pg. 273</ref>
Several of his articles for ''Ghimpele'' were sarcastic in tone, and targeted various literary figures of the day. In June 1874, Caragiale amused himself at the expense of [[N. D. Popescu-Popnedea]], the author of popular [[almanac]]s, whose taste he questioned.<ref name="tudorovicizf"/><ref name="Cioculescu, p. 52">Cioculescu, pg. 52</ref> Soon after, he ridiculed the rising poet [[Alexandru Macedonski]], who had publicized his claim that he was a "Count Geniadevsky", and thus of [[Poland|Polish]] origin.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 52–53; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 177.</ref> The article contributed by Caragiale, in which he speculated that Macedonski (referred to with the [[anagram]] ''Aamsky'') was using the name solely because it reminded people of the word "genius",<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 177">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 177</ref> was the first act in a long polemic between the two literary figures. Caragiale turned Aamsky into a character on his own, envisaging his death as a result of overwork in editing magazines "for the country's political development".<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 52"/>
Caragiale also contributed poetry to ''Ghimpele'': two [[sonnet]]s, and a series of [[epigram]]s (one of which was another attack on Macedonski).<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 60–61</ref> The first of these works, an 1873 sonnet dedicated to the [[baritone]] Agostino Mazzoli, is believed to have been his first contribution to the ''[[belles-lettres]]'' (as opposed to journalism).<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Perpessicius, pg. 50</ref>
In 1896, Macedonski reflected with irony:<blockquote>"As early as 1872, the clients of some [[beer garden]]s in the capital have had the occasion to welcome among them of a noisy young man, a bizarre spirit who seemed destined, were he to have devoted himself to letters or the arts, to be entirely original. Indeed, this young man's appearance, his hasty gestures, his sarcastic smile [...], his always irritated and mocking voice, as well as his [[Sophism|sophistic]] reasoning easily attracted attention."<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 177"/></blockquote>
Over the following years, Caragiale collaborated on various mouthpieces of the newly created [[National Liberal Party (Romania, 1875)|National Liberal Party]], and, in May 1877, created the satirical magazine ''[[Claponul]]''.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 17–21; Mîndra, pp. 9, 273; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 177–178</ref> Later in 1877, he also translated a series of [[French language|French-language]] plays for the National Theater: [[Alexandre Parodi (playwright)|Alexandre Parodi]]'s ''Rome vaincue'' (it was showcased in late 1877-early 1878),<ref>Mîndra, pp. 10, 273; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 178</ref> [[Paul Déroulède]]'s ''L'Hetman'', and [[Eugène Scribe]]'s ''Une camaraderie''.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 178">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 178</ref> Together with the [[France|French]] republican [[Frédéric Damé]], he also headed a short-lived journal, ''Națiunea Română''.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 186–187; Mîndra, p. 9</ref>
It was also then that he contributed a serialized overview of Romanian theater, published by the newspaper ''[[România Liberă]]'', in which Caragiale attacked the inferiority of Romanian [[dramaturgy]] and the widespread recourse to [[plagiarism]].<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 92; Perpessicius, pp. 238–239; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 178</ref> According to literary historian [[Perpessicius]], the series constituted "one of the most solid critical contributions to the history of our theater".<ref>Perpessicius, pp. 238–239</ref>
Macedonski later alleged that, in his contributions to the liberal newspapers, the young writer had [[libel]]ed several [[Conservative Party (Romania, 1880–1918)|Conservative Party]] politicians—when researching this period, [[Șerban Cioculescu]] concluded that the accusation was false, and that only one polemical article on a political topic could be traced back to Caragiale.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 18–19, 59–60, 59–60</ref>
===''Timpul'' and ''Claponul''===
[[File:Russian Army in Bucharest, The Illustrated London News, 1877.jpg|thumb|The [[Military history of Imperial Russia|Russian Army]] in [[Bucharest]], print in ''[[The Illustrated London News]]'' (1877)]]
The young journalist began drifting away from National Liberal politics soon after 1876, when the group came to power with [[Ion Brătianu]] as [[List of Prime Ministers of Romania|Premier]].<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 20">Cioculescu, p. 20</ref> According to many versions, Eminescu, who was working on the editorial staff of the main Conservative newspaper, ''[[Timpul]]'', asked to be joined by Caragiale and the Transylvanian prose writer [[Ioan Slavici]], who were both employed by the paper.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Mîndra, p. 273; Ornea, p. 200; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 147, 178, 224–225</ref> This order of events remains unclear, and depends on sources saying that Eminescu was employed by the paper in March 1876.<ref name="Ornea, p. 246">Ornea, p. 246</ref> Other testimonies indicate that it was actually Eminescu who arrived last, beginning work in January 1878.<ref name="Ornea, p. 246"/>
Slavici later recalled that three of them engaged in lengthy discussions at ''Timpul'''s headquarters on [[Calea Victoriei]] and in Eminescu's house on Sfinților Street, where they planned to co-author a massive work on [[Romanian grammar]].<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 178"/> According to literary historian [[Tudor Vianu]], the relationship between Caragiale and Eminescu partly replicated that between the latter and the [[Moldavia]]n [[Ion Creangă]].<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 178"/>
Over that period, ''Timpul'' and Eminescu were engaged in a harsh polemic with the Reds, and especially their leader Rosetti.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 147">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 147</ref> It was also then that Romania entered the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|Russo-Turkish War]] as a means to secure her complete independence from the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 147"/> Caragiale reportedly took little interest in editing ''Timpul'' over that period, but it is assumed that several unsigned chronicles, covering foreign events, are his contributions (as are two short story adaptations of works by the [[United States|American]] author [[Edgar Allan Poe]], both published by ''Timpul'' in spring-summer 1878).<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 20"/> The newspaper was actually issued as a collaborative effort, which makes it hard to identify the authors of many other articles.<ref>Ornea, pp. 246–247</ref> According to Slavici, Caragiale occasionally completed unfinished contributions by Eminescu whenever the latter had to leave unexpectedly.<ref>Ornea, p. 247</ref>
He concentrated instead on ''Claponul'', which he edited and wrote single-handedly for the duration of the war.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 53</ref> Zarifopol believed that, through the series of light satires he contributed for the magazine, Caragiale was trying out his style, and thus "entertaining the suburbanites, in order to study them".<ref name="zarifintrod"/> A piece he authored of the time featured an imaginary barber and amateur artist, Năstase Știrbu, who drew a direct parallel between art, literature and cutting hair—both the theme and the character were to be reused in his later works.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 53–54</ref> Similarly, a fragment of prose referring to two inseparable friends, Șotrocea and Motrocea, was to serve as the first draft for the [[Lache and Mache]] series in ''[[Momente și schițe]]''.<ref name="zarifintrod"/> Another notable work of the time is ''Pohod la șosea'', a rhyming [[reportage]] documenting the [[Military history of Imperial Russia|Russian Army]]'s arrival to Bucharest, and the street reactions to the event.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 62</ref> ''Claponul'' ceased publication in early 1878.<ref>Mîndra, p. 10</ref>
===''Junimea'' reception===
It was probably through Eminescu that Ion Luca Caragiale came into contact with the [[Iași]]-based ''[[Junimea]]'', the influential literary society which was also a center for anti-National Liberal politics.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 178"/> Initially, Caragiale met with ''Junimea'' founder, the critic and politician [[Titu Maiorescu]], during a visit to the house of Dr. Kremnitz, physician to the family of ''[[Domnitor]]'' [[Carol I of Romania|Carol I]].<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 178–179</ref> The doctor's wife and Maiorescu's sister-in-law, [[Mite Kremnitz]], was herself a writer, and later became Eminescu's lover.<ref name="coreseminescumicle"/><ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 66, 150</ref> During several meetings, Caragiale was asked by Maiorescu to write down a series of [[aphorism]]s in an album. His concise musings are contemplative in tone, and some of them have been construed by some present-day reviewers to contain evidence of [[misanthropy]]<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 75; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 178–179</ref> and, to a certain degree, [[misogyny]].<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 76</ref>
In 1878, Caragiale and Maiorescu left for Iași, where they attended ''Junimea''{{'}}s 15th anniversary, and where Caragiale read his first draft of the celebrated play ''[[O noapte furtunoasă]]''.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 9, 179</ref> The work, ridiculing the ''[[petite bourgeoisie]]''{{'}}s mix of liberal values and [[demagogy]] over a background of superficial culture, immediately struck a chord with the majority-conservative grouping.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 61, 179–180</ref> Its reception was one of the pivotal moments in the second period of ''Junimea'' activities, characterized by the society's expansion to Bucharest and its [[patronage]] of the arts.<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 397–398; Vol. II, pp. 9, 110, 136–137</ref> Other writers who marked this stage were Creangă, Slavici, [[Vasile Alecsandri]] and [[Vasile Conta]]—together with Caragiale, they soon became the foremost representatives of ''Junimea''{{'}}s direct influence on literature.<ref>Ornea, pp. 151–258; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 305, 398; Vol. II, pp. 9, 136–137, 221</ref> To varying degrees, they all complimented the main element of ''Junimist'' discourse, Maiorescu criticism of "forms without a foundation"—the concept itself referred to the negative impact of [[modernization]], which, ''Junimea'' argued, had by then only benefited the upper strata of Romanian society, leaving the rest with an incomplete and increasingly falsified culture.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Ornea, pp. 151–258; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 19</ref>
Ion Luca Caragiale also associated with ''Junimea'''s mouthpiece, ''[[Convorbiri Literare]]'', and continued to contribute there even after 1885, when the society began to decline in importance.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 10, 61</ref> It was here that all his major comedies were first presented to the public.<ref name="danmanuca"/> He did not, however, join [[Petre P. Carp]]'s movement, which aimed to consolidate ''Junimea'' as a third force in Romanian politics, and remained a staunch independent over the following years.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 21">Cioculescu, p. 21</ref> Caragiale was nevertheless associated with the ''Junimist'' journal ''[[Constituționalul]]''.<ref name="Ornea, p. 200">Ornea, pg. 200</ref>
In early January 1879, ''O noapte furtunoasă'' was first staged by the National Theater.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 184–186; Mîndra, pg. 273; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 180</ref> Its production brought the first association between Caragiale and comedian [[Mihai Mateescu]], who went on to portray some of his most popular characters. The play was a hit, and acclaim reached Caragiale despite the fact that he had refused to have his name printed on the posters.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 184–186</ref> Caragiale was soon outraged to discover that, by the second staging, his text had been toned down by the government-appointed Head of Theaters, the National Liberal [[Ion Ghica]].<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 180, 186, 190</ref> When he asked for an official explanation, ''O noapte furtunoasă'' was removed from the season's program.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 190–191; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 180, 186</ref> Over the following years, independent troupes staged the play or its [[Plagiarism|plagiarized]] versions for their own benefit. It was restored to the National Theater's repertoire in 1883, and was so successful that state theaters in cities such as [[Craiova]] and [[Iași]] made efforts to have it included in their own programs.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 186, 190–194.</ref>
Caragiale subsequently took part in directing his plays at the National Theater, where his main collaborator was actor and manager [[Constantin I. Nottara]].<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 323">Cioculescu, pg. 323</ref> Together, they are credited with having put a stop to the techniques favored by [[Mihail Pascaly]], replacing emphatic declamation with a more natural and studied perspective on acting.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 323"/>
===Inspector general===
In 1880, he printed ''Conu Leonida față cu reacțiunea'' — a play centered on an uncultured "Red" pensioner and his naive wife, who overhear a street brawl and believe that a revolution is imminent.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref name="Mîndra, p. 273"/> It was also then that his first memoirs from the world of theater were published, which coincided with the release of [[Ion Creangă]]'s own book of memoirs, the well-known volume ''[[Amintiri din copilărie]]''.<ref name="zarifintrod"/>
Accompanied by Maiorescu, Caragiale left for [[Austria-Hungary]]. In [[Vienna]], the two of them attended a staging of [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]'', hosted by the [[Burgtheater]].<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 180">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 180</ref> He was practically unemployed after returning, and, in 1881, gave up his position at ''Timpul''.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 180"/> Nevertheless, that autumn, [[V. A. Urechia]], [[Ministry of Education, Research and Youth (Romania)|Minister of Education]] in the [[Ion Brătianu]] National Liberal cabinet, assigned him the office of inspector general for the Moldavian counties of [[Suceava County|Suceava]] and [[Neamț County|Neamț]].<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 180"/> Profiting from the proximity between his new residence and Iași, Ion Luca Caragiale became a regular participant in ''Junimea'''s activities, becoming good friends with some of its most important representatives ([[Iacob Negruzzi]], [[Vasile Pogor]], and [[Petru Th. Missir]]).<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 5–6; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 82, 117, 180</ref> With Negruzzi, he dramatized ''Hatmanul Baltag'', a short story by [[Nicolae Gane]].<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 115</ref>
He became close to [[Veronica Micle]], a woman writer who was also Eminescu's mistress.<ref>Ciupală, pg. 25; Perpessicius, pg. 277; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 180</ref> For a while, Caragiale and Micle had a love affair, although she continued to see the poet.<ref name="coreseminescumicle"/><ref>Cioculescu, pg. 313; Ciupală, pg. 25; Perpessicius, pp. 277, 290</ref> This caused the friendship between Eminescu and Caragiale to sour.<ref name="coreseminescumicle"/><ref>Cioculescu, pg. 313</ref> The former was jealous of Cargiale's relations with Micle, while she resented the poet's affair with Mite Kremnitz.<ref name="coreseminescumicle"/>
[[File:IL and Mateiu Caragiale.jpg|thumb|Ion Luca and [[Mateiu Caragiale]] before 1900]]
Just one year after, Caragiale was moved back to Wallachia, becoming inspector general in [[Argeș County|Argeș]] and [[Vâlcea County|Vâlcea]]. He was ultimately stripped of this position in 1884, and found himself on the verge of [[bankruptcy]]; he thus accepted the lowly position of [[clerk (position)|clerk]] for the [[civil registry]] administration.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 180"/> It is probably during this period that his [[melodrama]] ''[[O soacră]]'' was written and published — Caragiale, who was aware of its faults, indicated that it was a work from his youth, and dated it to 1876.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 149–150</ref> His account is challenged by several details in the text.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pg. 150</ref>
In June 1883, while visiting Maiorescu's house, he received news that Eminescu had suffered the first in a series of [[dementia]] attacks (owing to a disease that was to kill him in 1889).<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 150–152</ref> Caragiale reportedly broke into tears.<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 280; Perpessicius, pg. 148; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 150</ref> This succession of events also saw him becoming involved in conflicts among ''Junimea'' members: like Pogor, Caragiale objected to the style of [[Vasile Alecsandri]], an aged ''Junimist'' poet, and was shocked to find out that he was ridiculing the much younger Eminescu.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 278–79, 280</ref> He thus decided to criticize Alecsandri in public, during a March 1884 meeting of the society—Maiorescu recorded in his private notes that "[...] Caragiale [was] aggressive and rude toward Alecsandri."<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 280</ref>
Caragiale's wealthy relative, Catinca Momulo Cardini (commonly known Catinca Momuloaia), who was the widow of a famous restaurateur and the cousin of his mother Ecaterina, died in 1885, and the writer had the prospect of inheriting a large fortune.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 308, 362; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 188</ref> He nonetheless became involved in a trial with Momuloaia's other relatives, which prolonged itself until the early 20th century.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 188">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 188</ref>
===First major successes===
Months after this, his new comedy, ''[[O scrisoare pierdută]]'', was first shown to the public. A fresco of conflicting [[political machine]]s, provincial [[Political corruption|corruption]], petty ambitions, and incoherent demagogy, it was an instant hit with the public.<ref>Ornea, pp. 227–228; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 180</ref> Arguably the high point of Caragiale's career,<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 180"/> it became one of the best-known works of its kind in Romanian literature. Maiorescu was pleased by its success, and believed that it was a sign of maturity in Romanian society, which, as he put it, was "starting to laugh" at the National Liberal rhetoric.<ref>Ornea, pg. 228</ref>
Ion Luca Caragiale was romantically involved with an unmarried young woman, Maria Constantinescu, who worked for the [[Mayor of Bucharest|Bucharest Town Hall]]
— in 1885, she gave birth to [[Mateiu Caragiale|Mateiu]], whom Caragiale recognized as his son.<ref name="nastasa"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 359, 366, 375</ref>
[[File:Convorbiri Literare - prima pagina - 1 mai 1885.jpg|thumb|First printed version of ''D-ale carnavalului'', as published in ''[[Convorbiri Literare]]'' (May 1885)]]
During the same year, Caragiale's ''D-ale carnavalului'', a lighter satire of suburban morals and amorous misadventures, was received with [[booing]] and [[heckler|heckling]] by members of the public — critics deemed it "immoral", due to its frank depiction of [[adultery]] gone unpunished.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 27–28; Ornea, pg. 24; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 335–336, 401, 409; Vol. II, pp. 61, 180</ref> The controversy saw Maiorescu taking his friend's side and publishing an essay highly critical of National Liberal cultural tenets (titled ''[[Comediile domnului Caragiale]]'', it was to be reprinted in 1889, as a preface to Caragiale's collected plays).<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 28–29; Ornea, pp. 9, 20, 24; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 334, 335–336, 401; Vol. II, pp. 61–62, 180</ref> In it, the critic, who was influenced by the ideas of [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], argued that Caragiale had not failed in uplifting the human spirit, precisely because he had risen above both [[didacticism]] and [[egotism]] (''see [[Arthur Schopenhauer's aesthetics]]'').<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 28–29; Ornea, pp. 20, 24, 39; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 332, 409; Vol. II, pp. 61–62, 64, 69</ref> In reference to accusations that the play was [[Patriotism|unpatriotic]], Maiorescu answered:
<blockquote>"[...] the present-day poems with a political intent, the odes on solemn days, the theatrical compositions for dynastic glorifications are a simulacrum of art, and not the real art. Even patriotism, the most important sense for the citizen of a state in his actions as a citizen, has no place in art as an ad-hoc form of patriotism [...]. Is there a single lyric of French patriotism in [[Pierre Corneille|Corneille]]? Is there any national spouting in [[Jean Racine|Racine]]? Is there one in [[Molière]]? Is there one in [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]? Is there one in [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]?"<ref>Ornea, pp. 31–32</ref></blockquote>
The article played an essential part in reconciling the dramatist to the general public, but also led to a polemic between Maiorescu and the philosopher [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]] (a [[Marxism|Marxist]] who claimed that Maiorescu was contradicting himself).<ref>Ornea, pp. 319–320; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 334, 335–336, 401, 409–410</ref><ref name="dbrghestmet">{{in lang|ro}} [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]], [http://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Asupra_esteticii_metafizice_%C5%9Fi_%C5%9Ftiin%C5%A3ifice ''Asupra esteticii metafizice şi ştiinţifice''] (wikisource)</ref> Dobrogeanu-Gherea argued in favor of Caragiale's work, but considered ''D-ale carnavalului'' to be his weakest play.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 29–33</ref>
===Theater leadership and marriage===
Despite his earlier conflicts with the National Liberals, Caragiale, who still faced problems in making a living, agreed to contribute pieces for the party press, and thus briefly associated with ''Voința Națională'' (a journal issued by historian and politician [[Alexandru Dimitrie Xenopol]]).<ref>Cioculescu, p. 21; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 180–181</ref> Under the pen name ''Luca'', he contributed two theater chronicles.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 21"/> In parallel, he taught classes at the privately run Sfântul Gheorghe High School in Bucharest.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 181">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 181</ref> This episode of his career ended in 1888, when Maiorescu ascended to the office of Minister of Education in the [[Teodor Rosetti]] cabinet (formed by a group of ''Junimist'' Conservatives).<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 181"/> Caragiale requested to be appointed Head of Theaters, which also implied leadership of the National Theater. Although Maiorescu was initially opposed, Caragiale eventually received the post.<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 136; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 181</ref> The ultimate decision was attributed to Romania's [[Elisabeth of Wied|Queen Elisabeth]] having asked Maiorescu to reconsider,<ref name="enemagist"/><ref>Cioculescu, pg. 136</ref> or, alternatively, to the support offered by the influential ''Junimist'' [[Petre P. Carp]].<ref name="enemagist"/>
[[File:Alexandrina Burelly.jpg|thumb|Alexandrina Burelly]]
The appointment caused some controversy at the time: Ion Luca Caragiale, unlike all his predecessors (the incumbent C.I. Stăncescu included), was both a professional in the field and a person of modest origins.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 181"/> As the National Liberals intensified their campaign against him,<ref name="enemagist"/> the dramatist drafted an [[open letter]] for the Bucharest press, outlining his intentions and explaining the circumstances of his appointment.<ref>Perpessicius, pg. 239; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 181</ref> In it, he attributed his own rise to the interest ''Junimea'' had taken in his work, while defending the literary society, which was, as he put it, "lost from the public eye at a time of political obscurity".<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 181"/> Reviewing his own merits as a writer and manager, he elaborated and later put into practice a program for state-run theaters — according to Vianu, it signified "punctuality and rigor".<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 182">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 182</ref> He nonetheless resigned at the end of the season, and resumed his literary activities.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 182"/>
In January 1889, he married Alexandrina, the daughter of architect Gaetano Burelly. She was a member of the Bucharest elite, which served to improve Ion Luca Caragiale's social standing.<ref name="nastasa"/><ref name="Cioculescu, p. 6"/> They had two children of their own: [[Luca Caragiale|Luca]] (known as Luky; born 1893) and Ecaterina (or Tușchi; born 1894; later married name: Logadi).<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 367">Cioculescu, pg. 367</ref> Several years later, the Caragiales brought Mateiu into their home, and Ion Luca enrolled him at Anghel Demetrescu's Sfântul Gheorghe College.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 367"/>
===Clash with the Academy===
Early in 1890, at the same time as his volume of collected works, Caragiale published and staged his rural-themed [[tragedy]] ''Năpasta'' — both writings were presented for consideration to the [[Romanian Academy]], in view of receiving its annual prize, the [[Ion Heliade Rădulescu]] Award. Caragiale's conflict with the National Liberals reached its peak, as two of their representatives inside the forum, historian [[Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu]] and future [[List of Prime Ministers of Romania|Premier]] [[Dimitrie Sturdza]], reported unfavorably.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 124, 129–132; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 182</ref> Additional criticism was voiced by the poet [[Gheorghe Sion]], who also defended the a work by [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]] (itself up for review).<ref>Cioculescu, p. 130</ref> When the ''Junimist'' [[Iacob Negruzzi]] defended his friend, Sturdza contrasted Caragiale's works with his own version of [[didacticism]], claiming that it altogether lacked a moral and national quality.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 124, 130–131; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 182</ref>
Both Hasdeu and Sturdza hinted at the influence exercised over Caragiale by their adversary Maiorescu, and went on to compare the dramatist with foreign writers such as [[Mite Kremnitz]] and [[Joseph Brociner]]; the latter was Jewish.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 130-131">Cioculescu, pp. 130–131</ref> For the two liberal leaders, Kremnitz and Brociner, who had authored works critical of the Romanian establishment, were aiding to construct a negative image of the Romanian nation.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 130-131"/> Hasdeu insisted that Caragiale was himself creating problems for the country, while Sturza, showing himself more lenient in this respect, insisted that Caragiale's plays had failed to display a love for "the truth, the beautiful and the good".<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 131">Cioculescu, p. 131</ref> He stressed:<blockquote>"Mr. Caragiale should learn how to respect his nation, and not mock it."<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 131"/></blockquote>
Sturdza's discourse contributed to the academy's negative vote (20 votes against and 3 in favor),<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 124, 131</ref> and rose Caragiale's anger.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref>Cioculescu, pg. 124; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 182</ref> In parallel, Dobrogeanu-Gherea's candidature for the prize was rejected with 16 votes against and 8 for.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 131"/> In 1897, writing for the Conservative paper ''[[Epoca (Romania)|Epoca]]'', the writer lashed out at Sturdza and his partisans, claiming that they viewed all humorous talents as "unholy", "useless to the nation", and "downright perilous".<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 182"/> Vianu noted that Caragiale's article directly aimed at Sturdza's reverence for [[Jacobin (politics)|Jacobinism]], [[Collectivism and individualism|collectivism]], and [[nationalism]], which, in Caragiale's own words,
<blockquote>"manipulated the baggage of big words with which the phony liberal school has been filling empty heads for fifty years on end".<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 182"/></blockquote>
===Split with ''Junimea''===
[[File:Bz restaurant Caragiale.jpg|thumb|right|The building in [[Buzău]], across the street from the city railway station, where Caragiale leased a restaurant in 1895]]
During the controversy, Caragiale published two memoirs of Eminescu—the poet had died in June 1889.<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref>Perpessicius, p. 190</ref> One of them was titled ''În Nirvana'' ("Into [[Nirvana]]"), and notably expanded on the early years of their friendship and on one of Eminescu's earliest amorous disappointments.<ref>Perpessicius, pp. 190, 191, 194, 235, 290, 300</ref> In an essay of the following year, he showed himself critical of a wave of Eminescu imitators, commenting: "A lot of reasonable people will walk the path and [...] of the people that know them only a few will raise their hats; whereas an insane person [...] will be followed by all the people. That is why the success of the [1890 Eminescu edition] has overcome all the editors' expectations".<ref>Perpessicius, p. 138</ref> He also reprinted his recollections from the world of theater, alongside pieces originally published in ''[[Claponul]]'' and various new satirical pieces.<ref name="zarifintrod"/>
Although this attack owed much to ''Junimea'''s discourse, Caragiale had by then turned against Maiorescu, probably due to his perception that the society had failed to support his cause at the Academy.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 182–183</ref> In May 1892, he used a public conference at the [[Romanian Athenaeum]] as a venue to make known his claims against the former Minister of Education and his associates, which caused a definitive rift between the two public figures.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 21; Mîndra, p. 274; Ornea, p. 200; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 183</ref> Caragiale also wrote ''Două note'' ("Two Notes"), an article accusing Maiorescu of having modified and censored some of Eminescu's poems, and of having exploited the poet for financial gain.<ref>Ornea, p. 200; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 183</ref> Around that time, he ceased contributing to ''[[Convorbiri Literare]]''.<ref name="Ornea, p. 200"/>
Late in 1892, Caragiale published two volumes of prose, including his new [[novella]]s ''[[Păcat]]'', ''[[O făclie de Paște]]'' and ''[[Om cu noroc]]''.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 183">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 183</ref> The following year, he began frequenting [[Socialism|socialist]] circles as an outsider to the cause, and soon became good friends with the [[Russian Empire|Imperial Russian]]-born [[Marxism|Marxist]] thinker [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]].<ref>Cioculescu, p. 22; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 183, 184</ref> Financial constraints forced Caragiale to become an entrepreneur, and, in November of that year, opened a [[beer garden]] near [[Gabroveni Inn]], in Bucharest's [[Lipscani]] area.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="adevcasele"/><ref name="Mîndra, p p. 184">Mîndra, p. 274; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 184</ref> He probably moved on soon after, and purchased a pub on a neighboring street.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="adevcasele"/> In a letter he wrote at the time, the writer showed that he was planning to move to [[Transylvania]], and considered starting a career as a teacher.<ref name="enemagist"/>
In November 1893, as a gesture of goodwill towards his adversary, [[Alexandru Macedonski]] authored an article in ''[[Literatorul]]'', in which he asked authorities if it was normal for a former Head of Theaters not to have a stable source of income—the intended recipient did not acknowledge this offer, and the Caragiale-Macedonski conflict escalated after he continued to attack the latter in the press.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 135</ref> One year later, Caragiale leased the restaurant catering to the train station in [[Buzău]] (just like Dobrogeanu-Gherea had done in [[Ploiești]]).<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="adevcasele"/><ref>Cioculescu, p. 23; Mîndra, p. 274; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 184</ref> His successive businesses were all struggling, and Caragiale was often on the verge of [[bankruptcy]].<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="adevcasele"/> Although he invested time and work in the enterprise, and even affiliated with the International Association of Waiters for a short period, he eventually decided not to renew his contract upon the years' end.<ref name="adevcasele"/> His period in Buzău was noted for its other results: in February 1895, the press reported that Caragiale had given a public lecture on "the causes of human stupidity".<ref name="adevcasele"/>
===''Moftul Român'' and ''Vatra''===
[[Image:George Cosbuc si Ion Luca Caragiale.png|thumb|[[George Coșbuc]] and Ion Luca Caragiale]]
Together with the socialist activist [[Tony Bacalbașa]] and the illustrator Constantin Jiquidi, he established the satirical magazine ''Moftul Român'', which ceased print after a few months, before being revived in 1901 and becoming an important venue for [[social criticism]].<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref>Mîndra, pp. 10–11, 274; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 183</ref> The new publication's spirit was indebted to ''Junimist'' discourse.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 183"/> Its title, translatable as "the Romanian trifle" or "the Romanian nonsense", alluded to the [[Cynicism (contemporary)|cynicism]] and self-importance of the emerging modern Romanian society.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 183"/> According to Vianu, this was a theme first debated by ''Junimea'''s [[Theodor Rosetti]].<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 183"/> ''Moft!'' thus mimicked the common answer to any important or merely exacerbated problem, and Caragiale also used it to illustrate what he saw as a common national feature.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 183–184</ref> In one of his early editorials for the magazine, he claimed that ''moft'' was to Romanians what [[spleen]] ([[Melancholia|melancholy]]) was to the [[English people]], [[nihilism]] to the [[Russians]], [[chauvinism]] to the [[Hungarians]], and ''[[Feud|vendetta]]'' to the [[Italians]].<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 183"/>
In parallel, Cargiale resumed his contacts with Transylvanian [[intellectual]]s: with [[George Coșbuc]] and [[Ioan Slavici]], he founded the magazine ''[[Vatra (literary magazine)|Vatra]]'' (1 January 1894), before withdrawing from its leadership.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 184">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 184</ref> During his short stay, he printed an unsigned [[sketch story]], ''Cum se înțeleg țăranii'' ("How Peasants Communicate"), which mockingly recorded a lengthy and redundant dialog between two villagers,<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 40–41; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 185</ref> as well as a portrait of the deceased politician [[Mihail Kogălniceanu]], and a [[fairy tale]] inspired by the writings of [[Anton Pann]].<ref name="zarifintrod"/> He also translated a [[novella]] authored by his friend, [[Elisabeth of Wied|Queen Elisabeth]], under the title ''Răzbunare'' ("Revenge")—he is known to have been annoyed by the longueurs of the piece, and struck out large portions of it to improve the flow.<ref name="zarifintrod"/>
During the same period, Caragiale had the initiative to publish short fragments he had translated from classical pieces, leaving readers to guess who their authors were—Vianu, citing the speculations made by other critics, presumed that these were writers admired by both Caragiale and his friend, schoolteacher Anghel Demetrescu ([[Thomas Carlyle]], [[Alexis de Tocqueville]], [[Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay|Thomas Babington Macaulay]], [[François Guizot]] and [[Jacques Nicolas Augustin Thierry|Augustin Thierry]]).<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 185</ref> It was also then that he authored a piece on [[Ferdinand I of Romania|Prince Ferdinand]], the [[heir apparent]], who had fallen severely ill — it shows Caragiale to be a passionate defender of the [[King of Romania|Romanian monarchy]], praying for Ferdinand's health. In 1898, he wrote a lengthy essay on the state of Romanian theater, in which he notably praised the actor [[Ion Brezeanu]], who made his name through portrayals of Caragiale's characters, for, among others, his "sober and refined interpretation".<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 184"/> Later that year, he published a new novella, ''[[În vreme de război]]'', a [[fantasy]] set to the background of the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878]].<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 38">Cioculescu, pg. 38</ref>
===Radical Party===
In 1895, at the age of 43, Caragiale decided to join the Radical Party, led at the time by former ''Junimist'' [[George Panu]]; one year later, he began contributing to its mouthpiece, the newspaper ''[[Ziua]]''.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 23–24; Ornea, pp. 207–208; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 185</ref> He was also briefly associated with the newspaper ''Sara'', published in [[Iași]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 10, 27</ref> Despite this, Caragiale was again an associate of the National Liberals later the same year, when the Conservative cabinet of [[Lascăr Catargiu]] was replaced with one led by [[Dimitrie Sturdza]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 23–24</ref> Articles he contributed to ''Gazeta Poporului'', a National Liberal newspaper, were centered on new attacks against ''Junimea'' and were signed with the pseudonyms ''i'' and ''Ion''.<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 23</ref> In mid-November 1895, ''Gazeta Poporului'' published an unsigned article which discussed the suicide of writer [[Alexandru Odobescu]], investigating the mundane reasons behind it—the piece is generally attributed to Caragiale.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 23–24; Ciupală, pp. 104–105</ref> The writer placed the blame for Odobescu's death on his much younger lover, Hortensia Racoviță, and hailed his wife, Sașa Odobescu, as a model of devoted womanhood.<ref>Ciupală, pp. 104–105</ref>
This episode of his life coincided with a period when relations between Romania and [[Austria-Hungary]] were extremely tense. Three years before, [[Romanians|ethnic Romanian]] leaders in Austro-Hungarian-ruled Transylvania had signed the ''[[Transylvanian Memorandum]]'', which inflamed passions among the Hungarians and led the authors to be indicted. [[Conservative Party (Romania, 1880–1918)|Conservative Party]] politicians in Romania had succeeded in negotiating an [[amnesty]], but their policies were overturned by the National Liberals, who appealed to nationalist and [[Irredentism|irredentist]] sentiment.{{cn|date=October 2022}}
Thus, Sturdza offered a measure of support to [[Eugen Brote]], ''[[Tribuna (Romania)|Tribuna]]'' editor and [[National Romanian Party]] activist. Brote, who fled Transylvania and planned to directly implicate the [[Kingdom of Romania|Romanian Kingdom]] into the conflict, attempted to replace the pro-Conservative leadership of the National Party with a selection of politicians favored by the National Liberals.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 24">Cioculescu, pg. 24</ref> As Sturdza came to lead the cabinet, both he and Brote retracted their previous statements, but again provoked the National Party by alleging that its leaders were the actual radicals.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 24"/> In harsh terms, Caragiale exposed the understanding Sturdza had with Brote.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 24–25; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 185</ref> Soon after, he authored a short story about a con artist who traveled to the imagined Transylvanian town of Opidul-nou, posing as the nationalist Romanian writer [[Alexandru Vlahuță]] as a means to live off the local [[intelligentsia]].<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 126; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 187</ref> In October 1897, he was outraged by news that Sturdza had given in to Austro-Hungarian demands, and that he had expelled Transylvanian nationalists from Romania: Caragiale held a speech in which he argued that Romanians living abroad were "indispensable" to the Romanian state.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 125–126</ref>
===''Epoca''===
[[File:Const Jiquidi - Caragiale leaving Epoca.jpg|thumb|Caragiale as a traveler, parting with ''[[Epoca (Romania)|Epoca]]'' (1890s caricature by Constantin Jiquidi)]]
In 1895, the writer followed the Radical group into its unusual merger with the Conservative Party.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 25–26; Ornea, pg. 208; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 185</ref> This came at a time of unified opposition, when the ''Junimists'' themselves returned to their group of origin.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 24"/> Caragiale came to identify with the policies endorsed by a new group of Conservative leaders, [[Nicolae Filipescu]] and [[Alexandru Lahovari]] among them.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 25–27</ref> He was upset when Lahovari died not too long after, and authored his [[obituary]].<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 26</ref>
Caragiale also became a collaborator on Filipescu's journal ''[[Epoca (Romania)|Epoca]]'' and editor of its literary supplement.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 25–28, 271; Mîndra, pg. 274; Ornea, pp. 203–204; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 185–186; Vol. III, pg. 281</ref> A chronicle he contributed at the time discussed the philosophical writings of Dobrogeanu-Gherea: while sympathetic to his conclusions, Caragiale made a clear statement that he was not interested in the socialist doctrine or any other ideology ("Any idea, opinion or system is absolutely irrelevant to me, in the most absolute sense").<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 186">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 186</ref> He also published an article criticizing Dimitrie Sturdza; its title, ''O lichea'' (roughly: "A Scoundrel"), was reluctantly accepted by ''Epoca'', and only after Caragiale claimed that it reflected the original meaning of the word ''lichea'' ("stain"), explaining that it referred to Sturdza's unusual persistence in politics.<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 27</ref>
When answering to one of ''Epoca'''s inquiries, he showed that he had yet again come to reevaluate ''Junimea'', and found it to be an essential institution in Romanian culture.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 186"/> Nevertheless, he was distancing himself from the purest ''Junimist'' tenets, and took a favorable view of [[Romanticism|Romantic]] writers whom the society had criticized or ridiculed — among these, he indicated his personal rival [[Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu]], whom he acknowledged to be among "the most remarkable figures of our literature", and [[Alexandru Odobescu]].<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 186"/> As editor of ''Epoca'', he published works by Hasdeu alongside those of his other contemporaries and predecessors — [[Grigore Alexandrescu]], [[Nicolae Filimon]], [[Dinicu Golescu]], [[Ion Heliade Rădulescu]], [[Cilibi Moise]], [[Costache Negruzzi]], and [[Anton Pann]].<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 63, 84–85</ref> He also took a more sympathetic but still distant view of Maiorescu.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 186"/> At the time, he befriended the young poet [[Cincinat Pavelescu]], and helped to promote his works in the press.<ref name="cpavelescu">{{in lang|ro}} [[Cincinat Pavelescu]], [http://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Amintiri_literare_%28Ion_Luca_Caragiale%29 ''Amintiri literare (Ion Luca Caragiale)''] (wikisource)</ref>
===''Universul''===
Around that time, Caragiale began collaborating with the formerly ''Junimist'' figure [[Mihail Dragomirescu]], who enlisted his anonymous contributions to the magazine ''Convorbiri Critice''.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 93, 293–311</ref> Again pressed by financial problems, he returned to a bureaucratic post—this time with the administration of [[Government monopoly|government monopolies]], and appointed by the Conservative cabinet of [[Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino]] in June 1899.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref>Cioculescu, pg. 10; Ornea, pg. 208; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 187</ref> In 1901, the position was suppressed due to cutbacks in budget spending.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref>Cioculescu, pg. 10; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 187</ref> This coincided with Sturdza's third mandate as [[List of Prime Ministers of Romania|Premier]], and further aggravated the conflict between the two figures.<ref name="enemagist"/>
At the same time, Caragiale was contributing to Luigi Cazzavillan's newly founded daily, ''[[Universul]]'', where he was assigned the column "Notițe critice" ("Critical Notes").<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 187">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 187</ref> This material formed the bulk of his collected short prose volume, ''Momente și schițe'', and notably comprised satirical pieces ridiculing the Romanian press' reaction to the activities of [[Boris Sarafov]], a [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonian]]-[[Bulgarians|Bulgarian]] revolutionary who had attempted to set up a base in Romania.<ref name="zarifintrod"/>
He continued to pursue a business career, and, in 1901, inaugurated his own company, ''Berăria cooperativă'', which took over the ''Gambrinus'' pub in front of the National Theater.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="Mîndra, p p. 184"/> It soon became the site of a literary circle, which included, among others, Tony Bacalbașa and Ion Brezeanu, the satirist Dumitru Constantinescu-Teleormăneanu (known as ''Teleor''), and the academic I. Suchianu.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 184"/> At the time, the Caragiales rented a house in Bucharest, near the present-day [[Bulevardul Magheru]].<ref name="adevcasele"/>
In early 1901, as Ion Luca Caragiale entered his 25th year in literature, his friends offered him a [[banquet]] at ''Gambrinus'', where speeches were given by [[Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea]] and the Conservative politician [[Take Ionescu]],<ref>Cioculescu, p. 28; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 187–188</ref> and where a special single-issue magazine, ''Caragiale'', was circulated among the guests.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 187–188</ref> Hasdeu put aside his differences in opinion and sent in a congratulatory letter.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 8; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 187</ref> In it, he deemed the dramatist "Romania's [[Molière]]".<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 8, 88–89, 141</ref> Nevertheless, on 23 March 1902, the National Liberal majority in the [[Romanian Academy]], headed by Sturdza, refused to consider ''Momente și schițe'' for the Năsturel Herăscu Award<ref name="enemagist"/><ref>Cioculescu, pg. 124; Mîndra, pg. 274</ref> — despite a favorable report from [[Dimitrie C. Ollănescu-Ascanio]].<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref name="Cioculescu, p. 124">Cioculescu, pg. 124</ref>
===Caion scandal===
[[File:Ion Luca Caragiale - Foto04.jpg|thumb|Caragiale in 1899]]
Soon after, Caragiale became involved in a major literary scandal. [[Constantin Al. Ionescu-Caion]], a journalist and student whom [[Tudor Vianu]] described as "a real pathological character", issued a claim that, in his ''Năpasta'', the Romanian dramatist had [[Plagiarism|plagiarized]] the work of a [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] author, István Kemény.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref name="Cioculescu, pp. 188, 373">Cioculescu, pp. 132–133; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 188, 373</ref> Caion expanded on this in articles published by ''Revista Literară'', where he provided direct comparisons between the two texts.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="Cioculescu, pp. 188, 373"/> This was received with enthusiasm by Caragiale's old rival, [[Alexandru Macedonski]], who publicized the controversy through one of his journals, ''Forța Morală''.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 133–140; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 188, 373–374, 387</ref> Initially amazed by the similarity between the two texts, Caragiale carried out his own investigations, and, in the end, discovered that neither the writing nor Kemény had ever existed.<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 133; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 188, 373</ref> Employing Ștefănescu Delavrancea as his lawyer, he brought Caion to trial: a court sentenced Caion for [[calumny]], but he was [[Acquittal|acquitted]] after an [[appeal]] in June 1902.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 124, 133; Mîndra, pp. 16, 274; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 188</ref> Several commentators believe that this was owed to a strong National Liberal presence among members of the jury.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="Cioculescu, p. 124"/> During the retrial, Caion retracted all his previous claims, and instead argued that ''Năpasta'' plagiarized [[Leo Tolstoy]]'s ''[[The Power of Darkness]]''.<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 133</ref>
Macedonski supported the lost cause until the very end, and refused to distance himself from Caion even as the latter admitted to the court that he had invented the story.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 133–140; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 374</ref> His magazine also accused Caragiale of having copied [[Victorien Sardou]]'s ''Rabagas'' for his ''[[O scrisoare pierdută]]'', as well as [[Henri Chivot]] and [[Alfred Duru]]'s ''Le Carnaval d'un Merle Blanc'' in ''[[D-ale carnavalului]]''.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 100–101; Cioculescu, pp. 136–137</ref> In one memorable incident of 14 February 1902, while he was hosting a literary festivity at the [[Romanian Athenaeum|Bucharest Athenaeum]], Macedonski was heckled<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 137; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 374</ref> and responded by blowing a whistle.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 374">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 374</ref> ''Forța Morală'' was shut down soon after this episode.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 374"/> In parallel, the National Theater offered Caragiale a degree of satisfaction, when it decided to showcase ''Rabagas'', leaving the public to see that it was only remotely similar to his play.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 137–138</ref>
In the wake of the scandal, Caragiale attempted to resume contacts with Maiorescu, and visited him several times. His former mentor was reticent, and finally rejected the offer for reconciliation – writing in his diary, he defined Caragiale's attempts as "apple-polishings" and ''paradări'' ("affectations").<ref name="Ornea, p. 200"/>
===Move to Berlin===
Having gained access to the Momulo Cardini inheritance, Caragiale became a rather wealthy man.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Cioculescu, p. 308; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 188</ref> According to [[Șerban Cioculescu]], the writer soon lost most of the funds earned, transferring them to [[Mateiu Caragiale]] and his mother, but was again made rich by the death of his sister Lenci in autumn 1905—she left him the administrator of 160,000 [[Romanian leu|lei]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 308, 362</ref> The latter event caused tensions between Mateiu and his father—Caragiale-son believed that he had been cheated out of the inheritance, and was angered by Ion Luca's decision to stop subsidizing him after he failed to complete his studies.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 352, 357–358, 360–362, 363–364</ref>
He was by then enchanted with the idea of moving into a [[Western Europe|Western]] or [[Central Europe]]an country, where he hoped to lead a more comfortable life and be closer to the centers of culture.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 188, 198–199</ref> He was especially interested in gaining easier access to the major stages for [[classical music]], as a means to satisfy his desire for quality in that field<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 188"/> (he had by then come to adore the compositions of [[Ludwig van Beethoven]]).<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 222–231; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 203</ref> According to Tudor Vianu, Caragiale was also showing signs that he was about to enter a vaguely [[misanthropic]] phase of his life.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 188"/>
In 1903–1904, the Caragiales traveled through various European countries, while the dramatist again considered establishing his residence in Transylvania.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="Cioculescu, p. 308">Cioculescu, p. 308</ref> They eventually moved to [[Berlin]], the [[German Empire|Imperial German]] capital, settling down in spring 1905.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Cioculescu, p. 308; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 188, 198</ref> The choice was considered unusual, since the writer knew only some basic [[German language|German]] expressions.<ref name="blagarol">{{in lang|ro}} Iulia Blaga, [http://www.romanialibera.ro/a89620/casele-lui-i-l-caragiale-de-la-berlin.html "Casele lui I.L. Caragiale de la Berlin"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801092907/http://www.romanialibera.ro/a89620/casele-lui-i-l-caragiale-de-la-berlin.html |date=1 August 2008 }}, in ''[[România Liberă]]'', 12 March 2007</ref> This has led some commentators to speculate that the move was politically motivated. [[Mihail Dragomirescu]] believed that Caragiale was living at the expense of the German state.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 308"/><ref name="blagarol"/> Cioculescu rejected this assessment, arguing that it relied on hearsay and pointing out that the chronological order provided by Dragomirescu was inaccurate.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 308–309</ref> In 1992, historian Georgeta Ene proposed that Caragiale was acting as a spy for Romania in Germany.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="blagarol"/>
The family lived in an apartment in [[Wilmersdorf]] and later at a villa in [[Schöneberg]].<ref name="blagarol"/> Paraphrasing a Romanian proverb which speaks of "the black bread of exile", the dramatist jokingly referred to his relocation as "the white loaf" (''franzela albă a surghiunului'').<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 122, 209, 217; Perpessicius, p. 442</ref> He did not however isolate himself completely, becoming very close to the group of Romanian students attending the [[Humboldt University of Berlin|University of Berlin]] and to other young people: among them were poet and essayist [[Panait Cerna]], sociologist [[Dimitrie Gusti]], musician [[Florica Musicescu]], and [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]]'s son-in-law, the literary critic [[Paul Zarifopol]].<ref name="blagarol"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 120, 122–123, 250, 262; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 188</ref> Caragiale was also close to the linguist [[Gustav Weigand]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 250, 262</ref> He frequently traveled to [[Leipzig]], where he would meet with Zarifopol, as well as vacationing in [[Travemünde]].<ref name="blagarol"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 209–210, 231–236, 259; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 189, 198</ref> In 1906, together with Zarifopol, he visited Beethoven's house in [[Bonn]].<ref>Cioculescu, p. 281</ref> He was close to the dramatist [[Ronetti Roman]], and, in 1908, confessed that he was devastated by news of his death.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 241–242</ref>
Caragiale was also visited by [[Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea]], who, as a [[Francophilia|Francophile]], vehemently rejected the aesthetics of Berlin in their conversations.<ref name="blagarol"/> Delavrancea was accompanied by his daughter, [[Cella Delvrancea|Cella]], a celebrated pianist.<ref name="blagarol"/>
He also traveled back into Romania for intervals—when in [[Iași]], he associated with the maverick Conservative [[Alexandru Bădărău]] and his journal ''Opinia''.<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 12–16</ref> He had closely followed Bădărău's career up to that point, and, in July 1906, authored an [[epigram]] on his ousting from the [[Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino]] Conservative cabinet—comparing Bădărău to [[Jonah]] and the Conservatives to a great fish that spat him out.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 259</ref> A poem he published during the same year ridicules [[King of Romania|King]] [[Carol I of Romania|Carol I]] on the occasion of his fortieth year in power, while parodying the style of republican poet [[N. T. Orășanu]]; without making direct references to the monarch, it features the lyrics ''Ca rol fu mare, mititelul'' ("Taking in view his role, he was grand, the little one"), with "ca" and "rol" spelling out his name (and thus allowing the poem to read "Carol was grand, the little one").<ref>Cioculescu, p. 68</ref> He continued to publish various works in several other newspapers and magazines, including various Tranylvanian papers and the Iași-based ''[[Viața Românească]]''.<ref name="zarifintrod"/>
His subsequent work comprised mostly correspondence with other literary figures, such as Dobrogeanu-Gherea, Mihail Dragomirescu, [[Alceu Urechia]], and Zarifopol.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 94–95, 117–119, 120, 122–123, 208–311; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 189</ref> He was also in touch with psychologist and philosopher [[Constantin Rădulescu-Motru]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 96–97; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192</ref> At the time, Caragiale planned to start work on ''Titircă, Sotirescu et C-ie'', meaning to combine the characters of his two most successful comedies (''[[O noapte furtunoasă]]'' and ''[[O scrisoare pierdută]]'') into one play—this was never accomplished.<ref name="zarifpubl"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 80, 260, 278, 279, 297, 301–302, 364; Ornea, p. 228</ref>
===1907===
In 1907, Caragiale was shaken by the outbreak and violent repression of the [[1907 Romanian Peasants' Revolt|Romanian Peasants' Revolt]], and decided to write a lengthy essay, in which he condemned the agrarian policies of both National Liberal and Conservative governments from a [[Patriotism|patriotic]] perspective.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 28–29, 119–124; Ornea, p. 228; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 189</ref> According to Vianu, the resulting ''1907, din primăvară până în toamnă'' ("1907, From Spring to Autumn") was, alongside earlier essays by Eminescu and Maiorescu, the most important works of social analysis to be written by that generation.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, p. 189</ref>
The essay, written in harsh tones, listed what Caragiale saw as the major social problems tolerated by Romanian administrations: he discussed the landowning class, successor to the [[boyar]]s, having maintained as much possible from the legacy of [[serfdom]]; he noted that, while the commerce was dominated by foreigners, the administration was gripped by a no longer aristocratic [[oligarchy]] and its far-reaching [[political machine]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 28–29, 121, 123, 268–271; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 189–190</ref> As several commentators noted, many of the topics brought up by Caragiale built on the critical overview adopted by ''Junimea''.<ref>Ornea, p. 228; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 190</ref> To the social and political problems, the text offered a [[Monarchism|monarchist]] solution—Caragiale expected Carol I to carry out a ''[[coup d'état]]'' against the Romanian political establishment, replacing the [[1866 Constitution of Romania|Constitution of 1866]], which left some room for [[Privilege (legal ethics)|privilege]] through the [[census suffrage]], with a more [[Democracy|democratic]] one.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 301; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 190–191</ref>
''1907, din primăvară până în toamnă'', first published in [[German language|German]] under the pseudonym ''Ein rumänische Patriot'' ("A Romanian patriot"), was originally hosted by the [[Vienna]]-based newspaper ''[[Die Zeit (Austria)|Die Zeit]]''.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 28–29, 121, 127, 268; Mîndra, p. 275; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 189</ref> The translation had been completed by his friend [[Mite Kremnitz]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 28, 121, 268</ref> In its original, the work was later printed under Caragiale's signature by the [[left-wing]] Romanian journal ''[[Adevărul]]''.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 28; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 189</ref> The author had agreed to make himself known after ''Die Zeit'' reached Romania and had caused the local press to wonder who had condemned the system in such harsh words.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 123–124</ref>
The brochure attracted instantaneous attention in his native country, and its success was notable: it sold around 13,000 copies.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 28, 260–261, 301</ref> There were notable differences between the two versions, which were the result of Caragiale's answer to criticism and suggestions from [[Christian Rakovsky]], a prominent [[Proletarian internationalism|internationalist]] socialist who had been expelled from Romania early in the year.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 28, 46</ref> Caragiale elaborated on some of the essay's themes in a series of [[fable]]s he published soon after.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 28, 47–48, 268</ref>
This chain of events prompted [[Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea]] to offer him a position in the Conservative Party, as a means to reform the system from within.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 304; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 191</ref> Caragiale rejected the offer: by then, he had grown disillusioned with the traditional political groupings, and had decided to sever all his links with them.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 27–28, 29–30; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 191</ref> Instead, in 1908, he joined the [[Conservative-Democratic Party]], a rising force of the entrepreneurial [[middle class]], led by [[Take Ionescu]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 29–30, 271–273; Ornea, p. 208; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 191</ref> He briefly returned to Romania several times after 1908, campaigning in favor of the Ionescu and being himself proposed for a seat in the [[Chamber of Deputies of Romania|Chamber of Deputies]] (before the Conservative-Democrats decided another person was more suited for the position).<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 272–273; Ornea, p. 208; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 191, 192</ref> His involvement in politics engendered a collateral conflict with his son Mateiu, after the latter expressed a wish to become part of the administration (a project ridiculed by Caragiale-father).<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 365, 368</ref>
In December 1907, after ''Opinia'' became a mouthpiece of Ionescu's party, Caragiale received news that its headquarters had been vandalized by [[A. C. Cuza]] and his [[Nationalism|nationalist]] supporters (who were students at the [[University of Iași]]). Just days after, when Cuza's group offered to host a Caragiale festival, he refused to participate, citing his respect for the [[freedom of the press]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 14–16</ref> It was also during the period that he published his ''[[Din carnetul unui vechi sufleur]]'', grouping short pieces about cultural figures such as [[Iorgu Caragiale]], [[Pantazi Ghica]], and [[Matei Millo]].
===Final years===
[[File:Alexandru Davila si Ion Luca Caragiale.jpg|thumb|[[Alexandru Davila]] and Ion Luca Caragiale]]
[[File:Ion Luca Caragiale 2.jpg|thumb|Ion Luca Caragiale c. 1912]]
Beginning in 1909, Caragiale resumed his contributions to ''[[Universul]]''.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, p. 191</ref> The same year, his [[Fantasy literature|fantasy]] piece ''[[Kir Ianulea]]'', which explored the [[history of Bucharest]] during the early 19th century and the late stages of the [[Phanariotes|Phanariote]] period, was published by ''[[Viața Românească]]''.<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, p. 313; Vol. II, pp. 191, 205</ref> The novella partly built on ''[[Belfagor arcidiavolo]]'', by [[Renaissance literature|Renaissance]] author [[Niccolò Machiavelli]],<ref>Călinescu, pp. 181–182; Cioculescu, pp. 203–207, 262; Vianu, Vol. I, p. 313</ref> and was occasionally classified as an example of [[historical fiction]].<ref name="zarifintrod"/> Similar stories use themes from the ''[[One Thousand and One Nights]]'' (''[[Abu-Hasan]]'') and popular anecdotes (''[[Pastramă trufanda]]'').<ref name="Călinescu, p. 181">Călinescu, p. 181</ref> Another work of the time was ''[[Calul dracului]]'', a rural-themed account of demonic temptation, which Vianu called "one of the most perfect short stories to have been written in Romanian language".<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 313–314; Vol. II, p. 205</ref>
His last collection of writings, titled ''Schițe nouă'' ("New Sketches") saw print in 1910.<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref name="Mîndra, p. 25">Mîndra, p. 25</ref> During that period, after giving endorsement to a project outlined by his fellow dramatist [[Alexandru Davila]], he aided in the creation of a new privately run Bucharest theater, and recorded its inauguration in his [[reportage]] ''Începem'' ("We Begin").<ref name="Mîndra, p. 25"/>
By that time, Ion Luca Caragiale became remarkably close to a new generation of ethnic Romanian intellectuals in [[Austria-Hungary]]. In 1909, he recalled the union of the two [[Danubian Principalities]] under [[Alexander John Cuza]], and predicted the [[union of Transylvania with Romania]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 126–127; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192</ref> He visited [[Budapest]] to meet with Transylvanian students at the [[Eötvös Loránd University|local university]], and was the subject of a [[PhD]] thesis authored by [[Horia Petra-Petrescu]] (which was also the first [[monograph]] on his work).<ref>Cioculescu, p. 250; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 191</ref> He decided to support the poet and activist [[Octavian Goga]], who, after questioning ethnic policies in [[Transleithania]], had been jailed by [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungarian]] authorities—writing for ''Universul'', Caragiale stressed that such persecutions carried the risk of escalating tensions in the region.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 191–192</ref> Later, he visited Goga in [[Szeged]], where he was serving time in jail.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192; Vol. III, pp. 74, 75–77</ref>
[[File:Caragiale grave.jpg|thumb|Caragiale's grave in the [[Bellu cemetery]] (flanked by those of [[Mihai Ralea]] and [[Traian Săvulescu]])]]
Caragiale also contributed to the [[Arad, Romania|Arad]]-based journal ''Românul'', becoming friends with other Romanian activists—[[Aurel Popovici]], [[Alexandru Vaida-Voevod]] and [[Vasile Goldiș]].<ref name="enemagist"/><ref>Cioculescu, p. 31; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192</ref> His articles expressed support for the [[National Romanian Party]], calling for its adversaries at ''[[Tribuna (Romania)|Tribuna]]'' to abandon their dissident politics.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 31</ref> In August 1911, he was present in [[Blaj]], where the cultural association [[Asociația Transilvană pentru Literatura Română și Cultura Poporului Român|ASTRA]] was celebrating its 50th year.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192"/> Caragiale also witnessed one of the first aviation flights, that of the Romanian Transylvanian pioneer [[Aurel Vlaicu]].<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192"/> In January 1912, as he turned 60, Caragiale declined taking part in the formal celebration organized by [[Emil Gârleanu]]'s [[Romanian Writers' Society]].<ref>Cioculescu, p. 69; Mîndra, p. 25; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192</ref> Caragiale had previously rejected [[Constantin Rădulescu-Motru]]'s offer to carry out a public subscription in his favor, arguing that he could not accept such financial gains.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 267–268; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192</ref>
He died suddenly at his home in Berlin, very soon after returning from his trip.<ref>Mîndra, p. 25; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 192–193</ref> The cause of death was indicated as [[myocardial infarction]].<ref name="Mîndra, p. 25"/> His son [[Luca Caragiale|Luca]] recounted that, on that very night, Caragiale-father was rereading [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Macbeth]]'', which he found to be a moving narrative.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 195"/>
Caragiale's body was transported to Bucharest in a freight train, which lost its way on the tracks and arrived with a major delay.<ref name="blagarol"/> He was eventually buried in [[Bellu cemetery]] on 22 November 1912.<ref name="blagarol"/> His longtime rival [[Alexandru Macedonski]] was saddened by the news of his death, and, in a letter to ''[[Adevărul]]'', argued that he preferred Caragiale's humor to that of the [[United States|American]] [[Mark Twain]], stressing that "[we] attacked each other often because we loved each other a lot."<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, p. 375</ref>
==Style and cultural tenets==
According to [[Tudor Vianu]], Caragiale's writings signify "the highest expression" of Romanian theatre, mirroring and complimenting the contribution [[Mihai Eminescu]] had to Romanian-language poetry.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 175">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 175</ref> Vianu nonetheless pointed out the immense difference in style and approach between the Eminescu and Caragiale, noting that, to Eminescu's [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] interests and "[[Romanticism|Romantic]] genius", the dramatist opposed his "great classical and realist endowment, a social, voluble and [[Epicureanism|epicurean]] nature".<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 175"/>
Critics and historians place Caragiale's style midway between the delayed [[Classicism]] of 19th century [[Literature of Romania|Romanian literature]] and [[Literary realism|Realism]] (with its ''[[fin de siècle]]'' development, [[Naturalism (literature)|Naturalism]]).<ref>Călinescu, pg. 179; Cazimir (1967), pp. 45–46, 49, 58; Cioculescu, pp. 5, 10, 93, 96, 107–110; Vianu, Vol. I, p. 310; Vol. II, pp. 201–202, 203–204</ref> The writer, who abided by the [[classical unities]],<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 45–46</ref> rejected Romantic tenets, and, as early as the 1870s, opposed the [[lyricism]] present in the dramas of [[Victor Hugo]] and [[Friedrich Schiller]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 96, 109–110</ref> [[Neoclassicism]] in his works is further enhanced in his drama and comedies by his adherence to [[Eugène Scribe]]'s principles (''see [[Well-made play]]'').<ref name="Vianu, Vol. I, p. 310">Vianu, Vol. I, pg. 310</ref> [[Paul Zarifopol]] argued that, for most of his life, Caragiale, the opponent of [[didacticism]], advocated Maiorescu's principles of [[art for art's sake]]. He often sketched out alternative endings to his stories, and selected the ones he felt came most natural. Nevertheless, Zarifopol also noted that, late in his life, the writer contemplated adding a didactic message to one of his writings, which was to remain unfinished.<ref name="zarifintrod"/>
His role in the Romanian context was likened to those of [[Honoré de Balzac]] in [[France]], [[Charles Dickens]] in the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]], and [[Nikolai Gogol]] in the [[Russian Empire]].<ref name="zarifpubl"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 107–108; Vianu, Vol. I, pg. 310</ref> Literary critic [[Pompiliu Constantinescu]] credited Caragiale's sense of irony with having corrected the tendencies of his day, and, through this, with helping create an urban literature.<ref>Mîndra, pg. 269</ref> Caragiale's interest in Realism was however denied by some of his ''Junimist'' advocates, who attempted to link his entire work with Maiorescu's guidelines: on the basis of [[Arthur Schopenhauer's aesthetics|Schopenhauerian aesthetics]], critic [[Mihail Dragomirescu]] postulated that his humor was pure, and did not draw on any special circumstance or context.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 36–38; Cioculescu, pg. 16; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 65</ref>
Through many of his traits, Caragiale was connected to a [[Balkans|Balkan]] environment of virtually permanent human contact, with its humor condensed in [[anecdote]]s, mimicry, and witty comebacks.<ref>Călinescu, pg. 181; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 307–308; Vol. II, pg. 195</ref> Zarifopol quoted him saying that he admired the traditional forms of entertainment, and that he admired the ''soitarìi'' ("[[buffoon]]s").<ref name="zarifpubl"/><ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 46–48</ref>
Largely reflecting his primordial study of [[dramaturgy]], Caragiale's literature is indebted to dialog, as well as, in rarer cases, to [[internal monologue]] and [[free indirect speech]] (the favorite technique of Naturalists).<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, pg. 311; Vol. II, pg. 204</ref> Language takes the central role in his work, often compensating for the lack of detail.<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref>Mîndra, pg. 270; Vianu, Vol. I, pg. 311; Vol. II, pp. 203–204</ref> To this was added his tendency to reduce texts to their essence—he shortened down not only his own text, but also his occasional translations of stories by [[Elisabeth of Wied|Queen Elisabeth]] and even [[Miguel de Cervantes]] or [[Edgar Allan Poe]].<ref name="zarifintrod"/> At times, he added a lyrical, meditative or autobiographical, perspective to his works: this trait was especially obvious in his later [[fantasy]] works (''[[Kir Ianulea]]'' and ''[[Calul dracului]]'' among them), all marked by [[Neo-romanticism|Neoromantic]] inspiration.<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 205">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 205</ref> Zarifopol claimed that, although Caragiale often rejected the tendency of other writers to capitalize on [[picturesque]] images, he often used them in his own writings.<ref name="zarifintrod"/>
Caragiale arguably won as much acclaim for his rigorous approach to playwriting as for his accomplished style. With [[Alexandru Vlahuță]], [[George Coșbuc]] and others, he belonged to the first generation of Romanian authors to take a noted interest in imposing [[professionalism]].<ref>Vianu, Vol. III, pg. 14</ref> He was specific about this requirement—on one occasion, he used sarcasm to overturn a common misconception, saying: "Literature is an art that needs not be learned; whoever knows how to turn letters into syllables and the latter into words has had sufficient preparation to engage in literature."<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 205"/> Commenting on this, Vianu stressed: "[...] even under the appearance of ease, [Caragiale] lets us catch sight of the severe law of his art"<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 206</ref> (adding elsewhere that "[Caragiale] was a scrupulous and tormented artist").<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, pg. 314</ref>
Caragiale compared writers who could not dissimulate their intent and generate a good story with "a [[Strabismus|cross-eyed]] who tells you which way to go: one doesn't known if he is to go down the road he points to, or down the road he is looking at".<ref name="zarifintrod"/> Speaking in the late 1890s, he also likened writing for the stage with [[architecture]]:
<blockquote>"In truth, just as much as the architect's plan is not yet the final accomplishment of his intent—that is to say, the monument—but only its conventional recording [...], so too is the dramaturg's writing not yet the accomplishment of his intent — that is to say, the comedy — but the conventional recording, to which will be added the personal elements, in order to depict a development of human circumstances and deeds. In short: just as an architect's plan bears little resemblance to a painting, so does drama bear little resemblance to a poem."<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 187">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 187</ref></blockquote>
==Political and social vision==
===Liberalism and republicanism===
[[File:CuzaGhimpele1872.PNG|thumb|Anti-dynasty cartoon, published in ''Ghimpele'' in 1872, and illustrating the differences of opinion inside the [[Liberalism and radicalism in Romania|liberal camp]]. Left panel: [[Alexander John Cuza]] betrayed by [[Ion Brătianu]]; right panel: [[Carol I of Romania|Carol I]], supported by [[Otto von Bismarck]] and Brătianu, feeding off of [[German Empire|German]] influence and economic privilege]]
His interest in first-hand investigation of the human nature was accompanied, at least after he reached maturity, by a distaste for generous and [[Universalism|universalist]] theories.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 9; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 193–194, 196</ref> Caragiale viewed their impact on Romanian society with a critical eye. Like ''[[Junimea]]'', he was amused by the cultural legacy of [[Wallachian Revolution of 1848|1848 Wallachian revolutionaries]], and by its image in National Liberal discourse. Nevertheless, he claimed that there was a clear difference between the first generation of [[Liberalism and radicalism in Romania|liberal activists]]—[[Ion Câmpineanu]], [[Ion Heliade Rădulescu]], and [[Nicolae Bălcescu]]—and the new liberal establishment, which, as he believed, had come to cultivate [[hypocrisy]], [[demagogy]], and [[political corruption]].<ref>Ornea, pp. 202–204, 228</ref> He exemplified the latter group by citing some of its prominent members: [[Pantazi Ghica]] and [[Nicolae Misail]].<ref>Ornea, pg. 203</ref> At one point, he argued that, had they not died young, the leaders of 1848 could have found themselves best represented by the [[Conservative Party (Romania, 1880–1918)|Conservatives]].<ref>Ornea, pp. 202–203</ref> He recorded the way in which National Liberal politicians claimed to take inspiration from the revolt, and pointed out that the 1848 slogans had become rallying calls for the most banal causes.<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 167, 308–309</ref>
His almost lifelong critique of the liberal current, marked by his conflicts with [[Dimitrie Sturdza]] and [[Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu]], was partly inspired by the ''Junimea'' guidelines — in line with the ''Junimists'', Caragiale perceived liberals as agents of [[Populism]], popular Romanticism, and [[Idealism]], as tenets prevalent in the literature of his day.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 9">Cioculescu, pg. 9</ref> For Caragiale, the resulting liberal-inspired literary works were ''spanac'' ("spinach").<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 9, 264</ref> The writer thus identified late 19th-century Romanian liberalism "empty talk", and his attacks on demagogy partly mirrored Maiorescu's views about the National Liberals' "inebriation with words".<ref>Ornea, pp. 205, 211, 291</ref>
Caragiale centered some of his first attacks on the "Reds" and their leader [[C. A. Rosetti]], in whose [[republicanism]] and inflammatory rhetoric he saw the main threat to Romanian society.<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 179–180; Ornea, pp. 209–217</ref> The writer believed that, ever since having ousted [[Alexander John Cuza]] from his throne, both Rosetti and [[Ion Brătianu]] were using their republican basis as an asset, inciting to rebellion only when their demands were not met.<ref>Ornea, pp. 211–213</ref> He frequently ridiculed the cult with which Rosetti surrounded figures of international republicanism, such as [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] and [[Léon Gambetta]], and indicated that the National Liberal public had very vague and impractical notions of what a republican state actually implied.<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Ornea, pp. 210–217</ref>
The republican agitation is no longer emphasized in Caragiale's later works, as republicanism slowly faded out of the mainstream liberal discourse.<ref>Ornea, pg. 212</ref> Noting this, several critics believe that, in his ''[[O scrisoare pierdută]]'', which depicts the battle between two unnamed political camps, the dramatist alluded to the conflict between Brătianu's moderates and Rosetti's extremists (as indicated by the fact that all the main characters attend the same rallies).<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Ornea, pp. 217–218</ref> This view was disputed by Zarifopol, who argued that the more pragmatic grouping stands for the Conservatives, and the demagogic one for the National Liberals as a whole.<ref>Ornea, pg. 217</ref>
===Nationalism===
Ion Luca Caragiale was a vocal critic of [[antisemitism]], which was mostly represented by the National Liberals and [[A. C. Cuza]]'s emerging movement. At a time when the [[History of the Jews in Romania|Jewish community]] was denied [[Jewish Emancipation|emancipation]], he advocated its full integration into Romanian society, calling for [[civil rights]] to be extended to all residents of Romania. Around 1907, he tried his hand at writing a legislative proposal, according to which the Romanian state was to extend citizenship all resident [[stateless person]]s who did not enjoy foreign protection—in its manuscript form, this document was kept by his friend [[Dimitrie Gusti]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 30–31</ref> According to [[Garabet Ibrăileanu]], his rejection of antisemitic views was owed either to his failure to relate with the [[middle class]] and its anti-Jewish stances, or to his "powerful intelligence", which contrasted with the "instinctual, almost zoological nature" of the antisemitic discourse.<ref name="ibrextremacar"/>
His criticism of both the nationalist discourse and liberal-inspired education generated subjects for several of his shorter satirical writings. Caragiale thus authored a mock-pamphlet advertising the program of a new cultural society, ''[[Românii Verzi]]'' (the "Green Romanians"), who took its [[Racism|racialist]] proposals to the point of arguing that "[...] a nation must always fear other nations".<ref>Ornea, p. 224</ref> Like ''Junimea'', he was entirely opposed to the group of [[August Treboniu Laurian]] and other [[Transylvania]]n intellectuals, who attempted to reform the [[Romanian language]] by introducing new forms of speech and writing that aimed to return it closer to its [[Latin]] roots. In his stories, Caragiale created the teacher [[Marius Chicoș Rostogan]], a caricature of both the liberal educators and the Transylvanian "Latinists".<ref name="Ornea, p. 226">Ornea, p. 226</ref> While in [[Berlin]], the writer also persiflaged some of [[Vasile Alecsandri]]'s liberal and [[Patriotism|patriotic]] writings—he completed Alecsandri's nationalist poem ''Tricolorul'' with sarcastic verses that were meant to enhance its [[Xenophobia|xenophobic]] feel (showing the Romanians ready to do battle against all their perceived enemies in [[Eastern Europe]]).<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 68, 216, 252–253</ref>
Nevertheless, various authors believe that a young Caragiale did indeed support nationalist liberal policies, and presume that he was behind a series of anti-Jewish columns, published by ''[[Voința Națională]]'' during the early 1880s.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 9"/> This was for long disputed: [[rabbi]] and literary historian [[Moses Gaster]] attributed the pieces to [[Nicolae Xenopol]], while researcher [[Șerban Cioculescu]], who originally doubted them, eventually agreed that they formed an integral part of Caragiale's work.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 21"/>
===Conservatism and traditionalism===
[[File:Caragiale and Vlahuta.jpeg|thumb|Caragiale (left) and [[Alexandru Vlahuță]]]]
In some of his early articles, and again as he distanced himself from ''Junimea'', the writer showed himself to be a vocal critic of the Conservative doctrine and its ''Junimist'' representatives. This is especially evident in his 1907 essay and in some of his stories.<ref>Ornea, pp. 228–229</ref> Caragiale claimed that both [[Titu Maiorescu]] and [[Petre P. Carp]] were "[[boyar]]s" who prioritized the interest of their [[social class]] (which was by then nonetheless defunct, as traditional [[Privilege (legal ethics)|privilege]] had been formally abolished a generation earlier).<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 22–23, 29, 121, 304</ref> Cioculescu attributed this to an "[[inferiority complex]]" Caragiale felt in respect to his former patrons.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 22">Cioculescu, p. 22</ref>
Despite his brief association with the mainstream Conservatives, Caragiale was probably never their partisan, and only hoped that the party could open the way for the reforms advertised by [[George Panu]] and [[Alexandru Lahovari]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 269, 271; Ornea, pp. 206–209</ref> When disappointed with their failure to promote change, he moved on to support [[Take Ionescu]] and his dissident grouping.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 271–273; Ornea, p. 208</ref> Uniquely among students of Caragiale's work, [[George Călinescu]] argued that the writer's main interest was not in criticizing the liberals, but actually in an overall rejection of the most embedded ''Junimist'' tenets, which, in Călinescu's view, had engendered "a lack of faith in the country's own powers".<ref>Cazimir (1967), p. 54</ref> [[Paul Zarifopol]] believed that several of his ''[[Momente și schițe]]'' characters, including the effeminate high life chronicler Edgar Bostandaki, are caricatures of the Conservatives.<ref name="zarifpubl"/>
Caragiale contrasted the other major writers of his generation, including his friends Mihai Eminescu, [[Ioan Slavici]], [[Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea]], and ''[[Sămănătorul]]'' journal founder [[Alexandru Vlahuță]], all of whom were advocating a return to the rural sphere and peasant traditionalism.<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, p. 312; Vol. II, pp. 184, 199</ref> In ''[[Moftul Român]]'', he [[Parody|parodied]] the [[archaism]]s favored by Ștefănescu Delavrancea;<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 41–43; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 185</ref> during his final years, he also questioned the aesthetic value of Ștefănescu Delavrancea's medieval-themed play ''[[Apus de soare]]''.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 253</ref> Prominent nationalists and traditionalists tended to be reserved in their assessment of Caragiale's literary contributions—they include his friend Eminescu<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 6"/> and historian [[Nicolae Iorga]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 28, 305</ref>
Nonetheless, Ion Luca Caragiale was, according to Zarifopol, a passionate advocate of tradition in front of innovation, and "a defender of the well-established truths".<ref name="zarifintrod"/> [[Tudor Vianu]] also evidenced that Caragiale treasured his [[Romanian Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] identity, frequently appealing to God and the saints in both his private life and his writings.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 197">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 197</ref> According to [[Ioan Slavici]], Caragiale defined himself as "a right-believing [[Christianity|Christian]]", and disagreed with Eminescu on the nature of religion (at a time when the poet was a passionate student of [[Buddhism]]).<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 197"/> Cioculescu called this trait "primitive religiosity".<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 7">Cioculescu, pg. 7</ref> The writer is also known to have convinced that [[luck]] and [[destiny]] manifested themselves in life,<ref>Călinescu, pg. 180; Cioculescu, pg. 7; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 204</ref> and his ''[[Cănuță om sucit]]'', a short story about a proverbially unlucky fellow, is thought to have referred to its author.<ref>Călinescu, pg. 180; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 204</ref> His [[superstition]]s were accompanied by a series of [[phobia]]s, particularly [[pyrophobia]] and [[nosophobia]].<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 7"/>
===Caragiale and the modernists===
Ion Luca Caragiale was mostly critical of literary experiments and the newer stages of [[Modernism]]. On this basis, he persistently ridiculed [[Alexandru Macedonski]]'s style, especially after the latter adopted [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]]. Much of his own poetry, especially pieces published in ''Moftul Român'' after 1901, parodied the [[Symbolist movement in Romania|Romanian Symbolist clubs]] and the [[Parnassianism]] of Macedonski's ''Literatorul''<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 63–64, 67, 134</ref> (among the best-known of these targets was poet [[Cincinat Pavelescu]], who was coeditor at ''Literatorul'').<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 134</ref>
As editor of ''[[Epoca (Romania)|Epoca]]'''s literary supplement, Caragiale refused to publish a descriptive poem by the young [[Gala Galaction]], claiming that it was not poetry (when [[Nicolae Filipescu]] asked him to reconsider, he threatened to quit).<ref>Vianu, Vol. III, pg. 281</ref> Late in his life, he reserved explicit criticism for the new generation of Symbolists, whose work, he argued, belonged to "the church" of [[Belgium|Belgian]] poet [[Maurice Maeterlinck]].<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 67</ref> Zarifopol also noted that, for as long as he lived, the writer derided the innovative works of [[Henrik Ibsen]] and [[August Strindberg]], but pointed out that Caragiale had never actually read or seen their plays.<ref name="zarifintrod"/>
Nevertheless, Caragiale was not entirely opposed to newer trends in poetry and art. Literary critic [[Matei Călinescu]] believes that he genuinely admired ''În orașul cu trei sute de biserici'' ("In the City with Three Hundred Churches"), a [[free verse]] poem by the Symbolist [[Ion Minulescu]].<ref name="mateicalinescu">[[Matei Călinescu]], "Prefață", in [[Ion Minulescu]], ''Romanțe pentru mai târziu și alte poezii'', [[Editura pentru literatură]], Bucharest, 1967, pg. XIV; {{OCLC|6434366}}</ref> This work is believed to have inspired a 1908 parody by Caragiale, in which the writer proclaimed his support for Take Ionescu.<ref name="mateicalinescu"/><ref>Cioculescu, pg. 66</ref> According to poet and essayist [[Tudor Arghezi]], Caragiale also admired the works of [[Ștefan Luchian]], a [[Postimpressionism|Postimpressionist]] whose paintings were often exhibited in Bucharest galleries.<ref>[[Tudor Arghezi]], ''Scrieri. Proze'', [[Editura Minerva]], Bucharest, 1985, pg. 621; {{OCLC|32599658}}</ref>
===Caragiale and the Left===
Moving toward the [[Left-wing politics|Left]] during the final decades of his life, the writer maintained connection with the [[Socialism|socialists]], but was nonetheless ambivalent to their goals. As Cioculescu noted, he welcomed the Bucharest celebration of [[May Day]] in one of his ''[[Moftul Român]]'' pieces,<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 22"/> and probably agreed to lecture for the Workers' Club in the capital.<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref name="Cioculescu, p. 22"/> Some of his writings were hosted by the socialist journal ''[[România Muncitoare]]''.<ref>Mîndra, p. 11</ref> According to [[Garabet Ibrăileanu]], himself a socialist at the time, "sometime after 1890, Caragiale briefly flirted with socialism."<ref name="ibrextremacar"/>
However, over the same period, Caragiale ridiculed several socialist militants, referring to one of their leaders with the derisive nickname ''Edgard Spanachidi'' (itself a derivative of "spinach").<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 22, 64</ref> Instead, his loose association with [[George Panu]] signified a return to [[Radicalism (historical)|radicalism]], and saw him campaigning in favor of [[universal suffrage]] and a complete [[land reform]]<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 23, 46–47; Ornea, pp. 208–209</ref>—this clashed with the views he had expressed earlier in life, and Caragiale was careful not to let it seem that he had returned to the "Red" liberalism of his youth.<ref>Ornea, p. 209</ref>
In one of his articles, Ion Luca Caragiale commented with irony on the [[Marxism|Marxist]] views of his friend [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]]: he compared the latter's way of dining on a leg of veal, laboriously carving it into sections, to his philosophical approach. Caragiale thus noted that [[philosophical skepticism]] was equivalent to stripping the bone of its flesh piece by piece, and then throwing it to the dogs—without having been able to fully document the leg of veal or its substance.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, p. 194</ref> Nevertheless, as Tudor Vianu indicated, although Caragiale preferred observation and spontaneity to speculation, he was not averse to pure philosophical analysis, and frequently quoted the [[classics]] in defense of his aesthetic guidelines.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 194–195</ref> Late in his life, Caragiale also sparked debates after deriding the emerging [[Poporanism]], a school of thought which took its inspiration from socialism, [[agrarianism]] and traditionalism.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 43, 67</ref> He is also known to have been amused by the [[1907 German federal election|German election of 1907]] and the resulting defeat registered by the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party]].<ref>Cioculescu, p. 271</ref>
Caragiale maintained a friendship with Dobrogeanu-Gherea for much of his life. He was especially interested in news of Dobrogeanu-Gherea having become involved in the 1905 [[Russian battleship Potemkin]] scandal, after the aging socialist decided to offer his help to the refugee sailors as they arrived in [[Constanța]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 243–246</ref> During his time in [[Berlin]], he repeatedly tried to convince the Dobrogeanu-Ghereas to leave their home in Romania and join him abroad.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 240</ref> Nonetheless, he criticized the philosopher when the latter refused to be decorated by [[King of Romania|King]] [[Carol I of Romania|Carol I]] (1909).<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 245–246</ref> Around 1907, the dramatist was also interested in the activities of [[Christian Rakovsky]], who was trying to make his way back into Romania, and closely followed news of street clashes between his supporters and the authorities.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 246–248</ref>
==Settings==
[[File:Sinaia Prahova old pic.jpg|thumb|Early 20th century panorama of [[Sinaia]]]]
The writer had an unprecedented familiarity with the social environments, traits, opinions, manners of speech, means of expression and lifestyle choices of his day — from the rural atmosphere of his early childhood, going through his vast experience as a journalist, to the high spheres of politics ([[National Liberal Party (Romania, 1875)|National Liberal]] as well as [[Conservative Party (Romania, 1880–1918)|Conservative]], ''Junimist'' as well as socialist).<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 6, 7–8; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 193</ref> An incessant traveler, Caragiale carefully investigated everyday life in most areas of the [[Romanian Old Kingdom]] and Transylvania.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 193</ref> He was an unusually sociable man:<ref name="zarifpubl"/><ref>Cioculescu, pg. 118</ref> in one of his letters from [[Berlin]], he asked Alceu Urechia to send his regards to over 40 of his acquaintances in [[Sinaia]] (from [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] diplomats to street vendors or beggars).<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 118–119</ref>
Several of his major works have a rural setting—they include ''[[Năpasta]]'', ''[[În vreme de război]]'', ''[[La hanul lui Mânjoală]]'', ''[[Calul dracului]]'', ''[[Păcat]]'', and ''[[O făclie de Paște]]'', as well as fragments of the pseudo-[[fairy tale]]s he authored late in life.<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 312, 313–314; Vol. II, pp. 198, 205</ref> Nevertheless, Caragiale is foremost known and acclaimed for his urban themes, which form the background to the vast majority of his most accomplished writings.<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Ornea, pp. 64, 221–223, 229; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 312–313; Vol. II, pp. 198–200</ref>
The author depicted the city in all stages of its development and in all its atmospheres — from nightlife to ''Căldură mare'''s midday torpor, from noisy [[slum]]s and the ''Târgul Moșilor'' fête in [[Obor]] to the [[England|English]]-inspired [[tea party (social gathering)|tea parties]] of the urban elite.<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Ornea, pp. 221–223; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 199–200</ref> This large fresco drew comparisons with his generation colleague [[Ion Creangă]], who was argued to have done the same for the countryside.<ref>Ornea, pg. 229</ref> Caragiale was especially proud of the opening paragraph in his ''Ultima emisiune...'' story, part of ''[[Momente și schițe]]'', which, he believed, the "corner of a slum" was suggested to perfection.<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 71</ref>
[[Tudor Vianu]] also noted that, among cities and towns, Caragiale preferred Bucharest and those provincial centers most exposed to [[Central Europe]]an influences (specifically, the summer retreats in the [[Prahova Valley]] and other Wallachian stations on the way to Transylvania).<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 199">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 199</ref> The enclosed world of the [[Căile Ferate Române|Romanian Railways]] also appealed to the writer, and an impressive number of his sketches relate to it in various ways.<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 199"/>
==Collective characters==
[[File:Sava Hentia - Targul Mosilor.jpg|thumb|''Târgul Moșilor'', the [[fair]] in [[Obor]] (late 19th-century painting by [[Sava Henția]])]]
Confessing at some point that "the world was my school", Caragiale dissimulated his background and critical eye as a means to blend into each environment he encountered, and even adopted the manners and speech patterns he later recorded in his literary work.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 6–7; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 195</ref> He thus encouraged familiarity, allowing people to reveal their histories, motivations, and culture.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 195"/> Vianu recounted: "The man was a consummate actor and a ''[[Deadpan|pince-sans-rire]]'', an ironist [...] to the point where his partners of dialog were never sure if they were spoken to 'seriously' [...]."<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 196">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 196</ref> In one of his pieces from 1899, he welcomed the famous actors [[Eleonora Duse]] and [[Jean Mounet-Sully]] to Bucharest, imitating the exaggerated style of other theater chroniclers—the article ended with Caragiale confessing that he had not actually seen the two perform.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 196"/> In one other instance, as a means to comment on [[plagiarism]], the author also parodied his own ''O făclie de Paște''—which he turned into the sketch, ''Noaptea Învierii''.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 205"/>
In ''1907, din primăvară până în toamnă'', his late and disillusioned work, Caragiale lashed out at the traditional class of political clients, with an indictment which, Tudor Vianu believed, also served to identify the main focus of his other writings:
<blockquote>"plebs incapable of work and lacking employment, impoverished suburban small traders and street vendors, petty dangerous agitators of the villages and of the areas adjacent to towns, bullying election agents; and then the hybrid product of all levels of schooling, semi-cultured intellectuals, lawyers and lawyerlings, professors, teachers and teacherlings, semi-illiterate and unfrocked priests, illiterate schoolteachers—all of them beer garden theorists; next come the great functionaries and the little clerks, most of them removable from office."<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, p. 190</ref></blockquote>
Direct criticism was nonetheless rare in Caragiale's fiction: Vianu believed to have found traces of it in ''[[O scrisoare pierdută]]'' ("the most cruel [of his satires]") and in ''[[Grand Hotel "Victoria română"]]'' ("the most bitter").<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 201">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 201</ref> On several occasions, Caragiale showed or even defined himself as a sentimental, and his modesty was acknowledged by several of his friends.<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, p. 314; Vol. II, pp. 197–198; Vol. III, pp. 74, 75–76</ref> Vianu noted that, alongside his Christian [[ethos]], this contributed to his distant, calm and often sympathetic overall take on society.<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, p. 314; Vol. II, pp. 200–201</ref> In his words:
<blockquote>"A wave of charm, of reconciliation with life passes above all [his characters], one which, if it only assumes light and superficial shapes, experienced by naive people with harmless manias, is a sign that the collective existence is taking place in shelter from the great trials."<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, p. 200</ref></blockquote>
In contrast with this, [[Poporanism|Poporanist]] critic [[Garabet Ibrăileanu]] argued that Caragiale actually hated the people who inspired his works, and claimed that the writer had made this clear during one of their conversations.<ref name="Cazimir 1967, p. 44">Cazimir (1967), p. 44</ref> His account was considered doubtful by researcher [[Ștefan Cazimir]], who believed that Ibrăileanu was using it to back a polemic and singular overview of Caragiale's work.<ref name="Cazimir 1967, p. 44"/>
According to Vianu, there is a manifest difference between Ion Luca Caragiale's comedies and his ''[[Momente și schițe]]'': the former are, in his view, driven by situations and circumstances, whereas the latter sees Caragiale developing his original perspective to its fullest.<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 309–310; Vol. II, pp. 200–201</ref> This, he argues, was determined by important social changes—a move from a traditional world—awkwardly attempting to digest [[Westernization]], [[modernization]], and [[Francization|Francized]] culture—, to a more stable and prosperous environment.<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 309–310; Vol. II, p. 200</ref> A similar division was applied by Ibrăileanu.<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Ornea, p. 221</ref>
==Types==
===Theoretical aspects===
The form of [[Literary realism|Realism]] favored by Caragiale placed types of characters at the center of literary creativity, owing to the influence of [[Classicism]].<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 201"/> Several critics have credited ''Momente și schițe'', as well as all his dramas, with providing some of the first truly believable portrayals in local literature.<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref>Mîndra, pp. 269–270</ref> Vianu stressed that Classicist borrowings in Caragiale's writings were limited, indicating that Caragiale parted with the notion of "generic types" to look for the "social" ones.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 201"/> In parallel, literary critic [[George Călinescu]] argued that "[t]he typological structure is present in Caragiale's work as a supporting structure, without being essential."<ref>Călinescu, p. 183</ref>
In Vianu's assessment, the universal human nature was important to Caragiale, but not made instantly obvious (as opposed to the immediate importance his characters were meant to have in the eyes of his public).<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 201–202</ref> Vianu illustrated this concept after investigating the manner in which Caragiale completed his ''O scrisoare pierdută'': the author was for long undecided about which character was to win the electoral battle on which the play centers, but opted for Agamiță Dandanache, the senile [[Radicalism (historical)|radical]], because his victory was to give the play more depth.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 202">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 202</ref> Caragiale was thus quoted saying that Dandanache was "more stupid" than the clueless politician Tache Farfuridi, and "more of a scoundrel" than the unprincipled and cunning journalist Nae Cațavencu.<ref>Cazimir (1967), p. 143; Ornea, p. 221; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 202</ref>
In Vianu's view, ''Momente și schițe'' was more vague in this respect, giving little insight into morals and states of mind, whereas the other, longer, novellas did depict feelings and occasionally provided additional details such as [[physiology]] or [[cenesthesia]].<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 202"/> Also according to Vianu, Ion Luca Caragiale, unlike the Naturalists, was generally not interested in offering the reader access to his characters' [[Psychology|psychological]] background—aside from his ''[[Năpasta]]'' and ''[[Păcat]]'', and ''[[O făclie de Paște]]'', he only adopted the psychological technique in satirical contexts, as a means to parody its use.<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, p. 312</ref> A similar view was expressed by Vianu's predecessor, [[Silvian Iosifescu]], who also stressed that Caragiale always avoided applying the Naturalist technique to its fullest,<ref name="Mîndra, p. 271">Mîndra, p. 271</ref> while George Călinescu himself believed that the characters' motivations in ''O făclie de Paște'' are actually physiological and [[Ethnology|ethnological]].<ref name="Călinescu, p. 179">Călinescu, p. 179</ref>
Maiorescu was especially fond of the way in which Caragiale balanced his personal perspective and the generic traits he emphasized: speaking of Leiba Zibal, the [[History of the Jews in Romania|Jewish]] character in ''O făclie de Paște'' who defends himself out of fear, he drew a comparison with Shakespeare's [[Shylock]]. He thus noted that, for all the differences in style between the two authors, both their characters stood for the Jewish people as a whole.<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref>Ornea, p. 50</ref> This assessment was backed by Maiorescu's adversary, [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]].<ref name="dbrghestmet"/> George Călinescu also believed that, aside from his individual nature, Zibal provided readers with an accurate insight into Jewish reactions to systemic persecution and death threats.<ref name="Călinescu, p. 179"/> Such assessments were rejected by [[Paul Zarifopol]], who opposed generalizations and commented that the work only referred to "[t]he ingenious cruelty of a man maddened by fear".<ref name="zarifintrod"/>
===Allegories===
One of Caragiale's main and earliest types is that of the young man gripped by love, expressing himself through emphatic and Romantic clichés—its main representative is ''[[O noapte furtunoasă]]'''s Rică Venturiano. As Vianu commented, Caragiale exploited the theme to so much success that it took another generation for youthful love to be presented in a non-comedic context (with the common signature writings of [[Ștefan Octavian Iosif]] and [[Dimitrie Anghel]]).<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 454–455</ref> At the other end are [[Patriarchy|patriarchal]] figures, heads of families who seem unable or unwilling to investigate their wives' [[Adultery|adulterous]] relations with younger men.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 55–56; Cioculescu, pp. 56–59, 83–84, 85–88, 113</ref> This behavior is notably present in ''O noapte furtunoasă'', where the aged Dumitrache fails to note even the most obvious signs that his wife Veta is in love with his good friend Chiriac.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 55, 112–119; Cioculescu, pp. 83–84</ref> A more complex situation is present in ''O scrisoare pierdută'', where political boss Trahanache cannot tell that his wife Joițica is having an affair with Tipătescu, and, when confronted with the evidence, is more interested in proving that she is not.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 55, 133–134; Cioculescu, pp. 85–88</ref>
With Venturiano, Caragiale also introduces criticism of the liberal journalist and lawyers. A law school student, Venturiano contributes long and exaggerated articles to the republican press, which recall those authored by [[C. A. Rosetti]] and his collaborators.<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 179–180, 183–184; Ornea, pp. 210–211</ref> A more elaborate such character is Nae Cațavencu, who plays a major part in ''O scrisoare pierdută'', and who, using a "Red" discourse, attacks politicians on all sides with turbulent remarks and recourse to [[blackmail]].<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Ornea, pp. 217–221</ref> He profits from the more moderate attitudes of his adversaries to proclaim himself a [[Progressivism|progressive]] politician, and he is successful in doing so—Cațavencu rallies around him a group of teachers and other state employees.<ref>Ornea, pp. 217–219</ref> The only person who is able to stop his rise is Agamiță Dandanache, an old [[Wallachian Revolution of 1848|1848 revolutionary]]. Danadanche, shown to have been sidelined from politics, makes a comeback at a time when the factions needs his inoffensive presence as a third-party, and, although senile, has a vast experience in blackmailing.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 143–144; Ornea, pp. 220–221</ref> [[Ștefan Cazimir]] linked Dandanache to a new [[aristocracy]], created around the first generation of Romanian liberals, and likened him to a [[Hidalgo (Spanish nobility)|hidalgo]].<ref>Cazimir (1967), p. 144</ref> Tache Farfuridi, a competitor to both, has been described by Cazimir as a conformist self-seeker, in the manner of [[M. and Mme. Joseph Prudhomme|M. Joseph Prudhomme]], a character made famous by [[Henri Monnier]]'s prose.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 136–137</ref>
Written between the two other comedies, ''[[Conu Leonida față cu reacțiunea]]'' depicts the long-term effects of republican discourse on its fascinated audience, through the sayings and actions of Leonida. The latter, whose source of income is a state [[pension]], notably supports the notion that the "Red" republic will provide each clerk with a salary, a pension, as well as a [[debt moratorium]]<ref>Cioculescu, p. 334; Ornea, p. 215</ref>—[[Șerban Cioculescu]] noted that this request had already been voiced in real life, and issued as a political program by an obscure [[Utopian socialism|Utopian socialist]] named Pițurcă.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 334</ref> Eventually, Leonida is convinced that revolution cannot be on the rise, since the authorities have banned the firing of weapons within city limits.<ref>Cazimir (1967), p. 129; Cioculescu, p. 337</ref> Similar fallacies are uttered by one of the secondary characters in ''[[D-ale carnavalului]]'', known to the other protagonists as ''Catindatul'', who has a vague familiarity with both [[Subjective idealism|subjective idealist]] and [[Materialism|materialist]] tenets, the sources for his absurd theories about [[suggestibility]] and "magnetism"—two processes in which he sees the universal source for all discomfort or disease.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 155–157</ref> In parallel, Zarifopol argued, the writer had even allowed ironic reflections on the impact of various theories to seep into a more serious work, ''O făclie de Paște'', where two students terrify the innkeeper Zibal by casually discussing [[anthropological criminology]].<ref name="zarifintrod"/>
Several other of Caragiale's characters have traditionally been considered [[Allegory|allegories]] of [[social class]]es and even regional identities. One of the most famous ones is [[Mitică]], a recurring character who stands for ordinary [[Bucharest]]ers, [[Wallachia]]ns or [[Muntenia]]ns in general.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref name="Călinescu, p. 181"/> A [[Hypocrisy|hypocritical]] and seemingly superficial man, Mitică expresses himself through either platitudes or clichés he believes are clever,<ref name="danmanuca"/> and, illustrating a tendency Caragiale first recorded in his ''[[Moftul Român]]'', quickly dismisses all important things he is confronted with.<ref name="Călinescu, p. 181"/> Similarly, the teacher [[Marius Chicoș Rostogan]], who is present or named in several sketches, stands for those [[Transylvania]]n expatriates in Romania whose sympathies went to the liberal current.<ref name="Ornea, p. 226"/> His discourse, through which Caragiale sarcastically illustrates liberal tenets in respect to [[Education in Romania|Romanian education]], is centered on a disregard for content and a rigor for memorizing irrelevant details.<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref name="Ornea, p. 226"/> It has been proposed that Rostogan is at least partly based on Vasile Grigore Borgovan, a Transylvanian-born educator and resident of [[Drobeta-Turnu Severin|Turnu Severin]].<ref>Cioculescu, p. 254</ref>
''Cetățeanul turmentat'', an unnamed inebriated man who makes brief but relevant appearances in ''O scrisoare pierdută'', is thought to symbolize simple townsfolk, utterly confused by the political battle going on around them, and ignored by all the notabilities.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 80; Vianu, Vol. I, p. 309; Vol. II, p. 201</ref> Like his counterpart, the police agent Ghiță Pristanda, the inebriated elector has no relevant personal ambition,<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 143–149</ref> and stands for the so-called "government dowry"—people afraid of losing their offices, and ready to back whoever is in power.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 80–81</ref> According to Călinescu, the inebriated citizen worships authority as a "supreme god", despite all its absurdities.<ref>Cazimir (1967), p. 55</ref> He repeatedly claims to have served Trahanache during [[Alexander John Cuza]]'s ousting, but his supposed patron only acknowledges him once, when asking party members to "escort this honorable person outside".<ref>Cazimir (1967), p. 146</ref>
In a number of his short stories and sketches, Caragiale makes use of another particularly ''Junimist'' theme, and investigates the glamorous but superficial impact of [[modernization]] on [[upper class|high society]].<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Ornea, pp. 222–224</ref> In one sketch, a couple of ladies dine in an opulent salon, while cursing their maid, gossiping, and showing interest in vulgar subjects.<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Ornea, pp. 222–223</ref> The characters in these writings tend to resemble each other, evidencing the generic traits of the well-to-do.<ref>Ornea, p. 223</ref>
===Other traits and characters===
[[Anxiety|Anxieties]] take the central stage in several of Caragiale's writings. From early on, Caragiale's minute analysis of mounting terror in ''O făclie de Paște'' won the praise of [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]].<ref>Mîndra, p. 267</ref> In several of his sketches and stories, characters are driven to despair by their inability to cope with real or presumed changes in their environment.<ref name="holbanemigr"/><ref name="Cioculescu, p. 89">Cioculescu, p. 89</ref> This is shown to have happened to characters such as Leiba Zibal, Stavrache—the pub owner in ''[[În vreme de război]]''—, as well as Anghelache (the suicide victim in ''Inspecțiune...'', part of ''[[Momente și schițe]]'').<ref>Călinescu, p. 180; Cioculescu, p. 89</ref> Șerban Cioculescu referred to the latter three as "great [[Neurosis|neurotics]]",<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 89"/> while Iosifescu defined Zibal and Stavrache as "[[Dementia|demented]]".<ref name="Mîndra, p. 271"/> Among the group of insane characters in Caragiale's work, Călinescu counted those of sketches and stories like ''1 Aprilie'' ("1st of April"), where an [[April Fools' Day|April Fool]] ends with a murder, and ''[[Două loturi]]'', where the clerk Lefter Popescu goes through the tribulations of having lost his winning ticket.<ref>Călinescu, pp. 179–180; Cazimir (1967), p. 56</ref>
Anxiety over imminent events grips the main characters in ''Conu Leonida față cu reacțiunea'', and plays a part in female behavior as depicted in all his other comedies.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 83–88, 89–92</ref> A special kind of fear animates the main protagonists of ''D-ale carnavalului'', whose jealousy leads them to act irrationally.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 149–157; Cioculescu, pp. 89–92</ref> Thus, Iancu Pampon, an assistant-barber and former police officer, and his female counterpart, the republican suburbanite Mița Baston, are determined to uncover their partners' amorous escapades, and their hectic inquiry combines real clues with figments of imagination, fits of passionate rage with moments of sad meditation, and violent threats with periods of resignation.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 149–155</ref> Glimpses into this type of behavior have been noted in other plays by Caragiale: Cazimir placed emphasis on the fact that Farfuridi is shown to be extremely cautious towards all unplanned changes, and consumes much of his energy in preserving a largely pointless daily routine.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 137–138</ref>
Many of Caragiale's writings reproduce discussions between clerks on their time off, which usually take the shape of generic and awkward forays into culture or politics. Several of the characters in his sketches spuriously claim to be personal friends of major political figures of the day, or to have access to the back-rooms of politics and journalism.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 113, 114</ref> Although often alarmed by political or social developments, they tend to accommodate them quickly, and often encourage each other during very long stays at the [[beer garden]].<ref>Ornea, pp. 223–224</ref> Gravitating in this environment are the petty journalists, who boast access to unlikely [[Scoop (term)|scoops]], such as [[Bulgaria]] having decided to invade Romania.<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref name="Cioculescu, p. 114">Cioculescu, p. 114</ref> In one instance, Caragiale invents Caracudi, a newspaperman who writes his [[Sensationalism|sensationalist]] articles while relaxing in the park.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 114"/>
Caragiale's [[persona]] is placed in numerous of his works. Aside from deduced self-portraits in ''[[Cănuță om sucit]]'' and elsewhere, he created the famous background character Nenea Iancu ("Uncle Iancu"), building on his colloquial name and his status as a regular client of the beer gardens.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, p. 204</ref> He introduces several of his ''Momente și schițe'' characters as personal friends, and garnishes the stories with intimate details.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 56–57</ref> Late in his life, he even confessed that the affair involving Venturiano, Dumitrache, and Dumitrache's wife Veta was partly based on an amorous misadventure he experienced as a young man.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 279</ref>
==Literary influences==
[[File:Daumier - Honest people.jpg|thumb|''We are all honest people, let's embrace one another, and let this be over with'', 1834 print by [[Honoré Daumier]]]]
Aside from the many authors whose works he quoted, translated or [[Parody|parodied]], Ion Luca Caragiale built on a vast literary legacy. According to literary historian Ștefan Cazimir: "No writer ever had as large a number of precursors [as Caragiale], just as no other artistic synthesis was ever more organic and more spontaneous."<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 63–64</ref>
A man of the theater first and foremost, Caragiale was well-acquainted with the work of his predecessors, from [[William Shakespeare]] to the [[Romanticism|Romantics]], and heavily impressed by the French ''[[comédie en vaudeville]]''.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. I, p. 310"/> He applied the notion of [[well-made play]]s, as theorized by [[Eugène Scribe]], and was also influenced by the [[dramaturgy]] of [[Eugène Marin Labiche]] and [[Victorien Sardou]].<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 96–101; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 310–311, 314</ref> Reportedly, Labiche was his favorite author.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pg. 98</ref>
The writer himself cited [[Cilibi Moise]], a [[History of the Jews in Romania|Wallachian Jewish]] [[peddler]] and [[Aphorism|aphorist]], as an early influence, recalling how, as a child, he used to read his [[one-liner joke]]s, and treasured them as exceptional samples of concise humor.<ref name="Cazimir 1967, p. 62">Cazimir (1967), pg. 62</ref> He was similarly impressed by the works of Moise's contemporary, the prolific author [[Anton Pann]], whose accomplishments he praised during talks with his fellow ''[[Convorbiri Critice]]'' contributors,<ref name="Cazimir 1967, p. 62"/> and whose work served as a source for at least one of his own stories.<ref name="zarifintrod"/> [[Nicolae Filimon]], whom Caragiale praised on several occasions, was the author of short stories which several authors have identified as less accomplished versions of Rică Venturiano. A similar connection has been traced between the various sketches authored by [[Ion Heliade Rădulescu]], in which Transylvanian writers are the object of ridicule, and Caragiale's character, [[Marius Chicoș Rostogan]]. Caragiale's late admiration for [[Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu]] was also linked to affinities in comedic styles,<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 82–89</ref> as was his companionship with [[Iacob Negruzzi]] (himself the author of sarcastic pieces ridiculing the liberal politicians and lawyers).<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 89–93; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 88</ref>
Caragiale is believed to have used and developed several themes already present in Romanian theatre. One such precursor is the author of comedies Teodor Myller, especially through his play ''Fata lui Chir Troancă'' ("Kir Troancă's Daughter").<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 181–182</ref> The writer was most likely very familiar with the comedies authored by his two uncles, [[Costache Caragiale|Costache and Iorgu Caragiale]], which have been shown to develop themes he later explored in depth. Among the minor 19th century dramatists whose comedic works were familiar to Caragiale, and in many ways similar to his, own was Costache Halepliu.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 73–76, 79</ref> Another often-cited influence is his predecessor and adversary [[Vasile Alecsandri]], whose ''[[Coana Chirița]]'' plays are an early critique of [[Westernization]].<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 70–72</ref> The two authors nonetheless differ in many ways, with Caragiale assuming a more complex role, and observing a more complex society.<ref name="antohi"/><ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Cazimir (1967), pg. 72; Mîndra, pg. 32</ref>
Ion Luca Caragiale is known to have been amused by the [[stock character]] [[Robert Macaire]], at a time when the latter had been turned into a comedic character by [[Frédérick Lemaître]].<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 102–103</ref> While in [[Berlin]], he purchased the cartoons of French artists [[Honoré Daumier]] and [[Paul Gavarni]] (although it is not known if their separate portrayals of Macaire were familiar to him)<ref name="Cazimir 1967, p. 103-105">Cazimir (1967), pp. 103–105</ref> — among these drawings was one showing notabilities embracing one another while picking each other's pockets, which shows similarities with Caragiale's own take on society. According to Cazimir, it is possible that he knew Daumier's work from early on, as several other subjects caricatured by the French artist bear a remarkable resemblance to his texts.<ref name="Cazimir 1967, p. 103-105"/>
Ion Luca Caragiale was also keenly aware and receptive of his contemporaries' works and of ''[[fin de siècle]]'' innovations. The literary creations of [[Émile Zola]] were a noted source of inspiration, and the parallel led [[George Călinescu]] to propose him and [[Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea]] as the main representatives of Zola's style in local literature.<ref name="Călinescu, p. 179"/> At the same time, [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]] believed that both ''[[Năpasta]]'' and ''[[O făclie de Paște]]'' showed the "obvious enough influence" of [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]].<ref>{{in lang|ro}} [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]], [http://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Dl_Panu_asupra_criticii_%C5%9Fi_literaturii ''Dl Panu asupra criticii și literaturii''] (wikisource)</ref> Late in his life, Caragiale discovered the literature of [[Anatole France]] — according to [[Paul Zarifopol]], France's [[Humanism|Humanist]] themes served as a model for some of Caragiale's [[Fantasy literature|fantasy]] writings.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 195"/><ref name="zarifintrod"/>
Discussing the latter works, Vianu noted that they reminded one of [[Shakespeare's late romances]],<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 205"/> while [[Șerban Cioculescu]] believed them to have been indirectly inspired by the works of [[Edgar Allan Poe]].<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 38"/> In his report for the academy, [[Dimitrie C. Ollănescu-Ascanio]] also drew a parallel between Poe's works and ''[[La hanul lui Mânjoală]]'', but this hypothesis was rejected by Zarifopol.<ref name="zarifintrod"/> In addition, ''[[Kir Ianulea]]'', partly using [[Niccolò Machiavelli]]'s novel as a source, was held as evidence of Caragiale's interest in [[Renaissance literature]].<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 313–14.</ref>
==Cultural legacy==
The writer's investigations into [[Culture of Romania|Romanian culture]] also resulted in an accurate record of the [[Romanian language]] as it was spoken during his day, sampling [[Romanian dialects|dialects]], [[jargon]], [[slang]], verbal [[tic]]s, as well as illustrating the experiments undertaken by conflicting schools of [[linguistics]] during the 19th and early 20th century, as well as the traces they left on the [[Romanian lexis]].<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 203–204, 240–241; Vol. III, p. 246</ref> In [[Tudor Vianu]]'s opinion, this was partly owed to his keen musical ear.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, p. 203</ref>
Caragiale was an enduring influence on both [[Romanian humor]] and the views Romanians take of themselves.<ref name="boiaborderland">[[Lucian Boia]], ''Romania: Borderland of Europe'', Reaktion Books, London, 2001, p. 247. {{ISBN|1-86189-103-2}}</ref> His comedies and various stories have produced a series of [[catchphrase]]s, many of which are still present in both cultural reference. Nevertheless, his uncomfortable criticism has occasionally seen him assigned a secondary place in the [[Education in Romania|Romanian curriculum]] and the academic discourse, a tendency notably endorsed by the [[Iron Guard]] and the [[Communist Romania|Socialist Republic of Romania]].<ref name="antohi"/>
In parallel, Caragiale's techniques have influenced 20th century dramatists such as [[Mihail Sorbul]], [[Victor Ion Popa]], [[Mihail Sebastian]], and [[George Mihail Zamfirescu]],<ref>Mîndra, p. 33</ref> and various directors, beginning with [[Constantin I. Nottara]] and [[Paul Gusti]].<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 323"/> Several of his theatrical writings have been the subject of essays authored by director [[Sică Alexandrescu]], whose interpretation of the texts made use of the [[Stanislavsky System]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 325–342</ref> Caragiale's short stories and novellas have inspired authors such as [[Ioan A. Bassarabescu]], [[Gheorghe Brăescu]], [[Ioan Alexandru Brătescu-Voinești]], [[Dumitru D. Pătrășcanu]], [[I. Peltz]],<ref>Cioculescu, p. 172</ref> and, in later decades, [[Radu Cosașu]], [[Ioan Lăcustă]], [[Horia Gârbea]] and [[Dumitru Radu Popa]].<ref>Cristea-Enache, chapters "Filo-logia şi alte iubiri", "Dumitru Radu Popa. American Dream", "Mircea Cărtărescu. Levantul pe orizontală", "Ioan Lăcustă. Un prozator profund", "Horia Gârbea. Un computer cu talent"</ref> According to various authors, Caragiale was also a predecessor of [[Theater of the Absurd|Absurdism]],<ref name="holbanemigr"/><ref name="danmanuca"/><ref name="boiaborderland"/> and he is known to have been cited as an influence by the Absurdist dramatist [[Eugène Ionesco]].<ref name="holbanemigr"/> Outside Romania, the impact of Ion Luca Caragiale's literature was much reduced—the 1996 ''Cambridge Paperback Guide to Theatre'' attributed this to the technical problems posed by translations, as well as to the tendency of staging his works as [[period piece]]s.<ref>Sarah Stanton, Martin Banham, ''The Cambridge Paperback Guide to Theatre'', [[Cambridge University Press]], Cambridge, 1996, p. 56. {{ISBN|0-521-44654-6}}</ref> It was not until 2019 that one of his plays - A Lost Letter - was performed in English. The translation used on that occasion, at the Romanian Cultural Institute in London, is available here: https://www.pdf2html5.com/pdfupload/server/php/uploads/admin_oxffauqbza/lost-letter-2019/complete.php
Several authors have left memoirs of Ion Luca Caragiale. They include [[Octavian Goga]] and [[Ioan Slavici]],<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 178, 197; Vol. III, pp. 75, 137</ref> I. Suchianu, [[Luca Caragiale]], Ecaterina Logadi-Caragiale,<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 28, 70–71, 111, 121–122, 367, 368; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 184, 195</ref> and [[Cincinat Pavelescu]].<ref name="cpavelescu"/> Among his later biographers was [[Octav Minar]], who stood accused of having forged certain details for commercial gain.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 314, 315</ref> Direct or covert depictions of Caragiale are also present in several fiction works, starting with a [[revue]] first shown during his lifetime,<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 321–323</ref> and including novels by Goga, Slavici, [[N. Petrașcu]], [[Emanoil Bucuța]], [[Eugen Lovinescu]], [[Constantin Stere]], as well as a play by [[Camil Petrescu]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 43, 198, 277, 316</ref> In 1939, [[B. Jordan]] and [[Lucian Predescu]], published a common signature novel on the writer, which was criticized for its style, tone, and inaccuracies.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 312–316</ref> The short story writer Brătescu-Voinești proposed that Ion Luca Caragiale's love affair with [[Veronica Micle]] and Eminescu's anger provide the key to Eminescu's poem ''[[Luceafărul (poem)|Luceafărul]]'', but his theory remains controversial.<ref>Perpessicius, pp. 277, 290</ref> Caragiale is also probably present in his son [[Mateiu Caragiale|Mateiu]]'s work ''[[Craii de Curtea-Veche]]'', where his lifestyle and contribution to literature appear to be the subjects of derision.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 351, 358–359</ref>
[[File:RO DB Caragiale memorial house.jpg|thumb|right|Ion Luca Caragiale memorial house in his native village]]
The writer was elected to the [[Romanian Academy]] posthumously, in 1948, upon the proposal of novelist [[Mihail Sadoveanu]].<ref name="anulcaragiale">{{in lang|ro}} [http://www.academiaromana.ro/com2002/pag_com02_0130.htm "Anul Caragiale"], at the [[Romanian Academy]] site. Retrieved 26 September 2007.</ref> 2002, the 150th anniversary of Ion Luca Caragiale's birth, was celebrated in Romania as the ''Anul Caragiale'' (the "Caragiale Year").<ref name="anulcaragiale"/> Annual theater festivals in his honor are held in Bucharest and the [[Moldova]]n capital of [[Chișinău]]. Caragiale's work has been the subject of many productions in [[Cinema of Romania|Romanian cinema]] and television—films based on his writings include the 1958 ''[[Două lozuri]]'' and [[Lucian Pintilie]]'s 1981 ''[[De ce trag clopotele, Mitică?]]''. In 1982, a [[West Germany|West German]] film, directed by [[Radu Gabrea]] and based on ''[[O făclie de Paște]]'', was released as ''{{Ill|Fear Not, Jacob!|de|Fürchte dich nicht, Jakob!}}''.
The [[National Theatre Bucharest|Bucharest National Theater]] is currently known in full as ''"Ion Luca Caragiale" National Theater''. Several educational institutions were named in his, including the [[Academia de Artă Teatrală și Cinematografică Caragiale din București|Theater and Film Academy]] and the [[Ion Luca Caragiale National College (Bucharest)|Ion Luca Caragiale National College]] in Bucharest, the national college in Ploiești, and a high school in [[Moreni]]. Among the statues raised in his honor are [[Constantin Baraschi]]'s [[Statue of Ion Luca Caragiale (Bucharest)|Bucharest monument]], and busts in the capital's [[Cișmigiu Gardens]] and in Ploiești. He was the subject of portraits and caricatures by various artists, and, in 2007, upon the completion of a five-year project involving cartoonists inside and outside Romania, he was designated "the most portrayed writer" by the [[Guinness World Records|Guinness Book of Records]] (with over 1,500 individual drawings in a single exhibit).<ref>{{in lang|ro}} [http://www.antena3.ro/Portretele-lui-Caragiale-expuse-din-nou-la-Madrid_clt_38861_ext.html "Portretele lui Caragiale expuse din nou la Madrid"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923172359/http://www.antena3.ro/Portretele-lui-Caragiale-expuse-din-nou-la-Madrid_clt_38861_ext.html |date=23 September 2015 }}, at [[Antena 3 (Romania)|Antena 3]], 11 September 2007. Retrieved 26 September 2007.</ref><ref>{{in lang|ro}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515132028/http://www.tvr.ro/articol.php?id=10352&c=47 "Caragiale în Guiness Book"],{{dead link|date=January 2013}} at the [[Romanian Television]] site. Retrieved 26 September 2007.</ref>
In 1962, a house in [[Ploiești]] has been turned into a museum honoring Caragiale (the ''[[Dobrescu House, Ploiești|Dobrescu House]]'').<ref name="adevcasele"/><ref>{{in lang|ro}} [http://museum.ici.ro/muntenia/ploiesti/romanian/muzeul_memorial_ilcaragiale.htm Muzeul Memorial I. L. Caragiale] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090129164810/http://museum.ici.ro/muntenia/ploiesti/romanian/muzeul_memorial_ilcaragiale.htm |date=29 January 2009 }} at [http://museum.ici.ro/ ''Muzee din regiunile României''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081019183551/http://museum.ici.ro/ |date=19 October 2008 }}. Retrieved 25 September 2007.</ref> His native home in [[I. L. Caragiale, Dâmbovița|Haimanale]] was opened for the public in 1979.<ref>[http://www.muzee-dambovitene.ro/en/casa_caragiale.php The Memorial House "Ion Luca Caragiale"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509075634/http://www.muzee-dambovitene.ro/en/casa_caragiale.php |date=9 May 2008 }}, at [http://www.muzee-dambovitene.ro/en/ ''Museums of Dâmbovița''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211093527/http://www.muzee-dambovitene.ro/en/ |date=11 December 2008 }}. Retrieved 25 September 2007.</ref> Memorial plaques have also been set up in [[Buzău]]<ref name="adevcasele"/> and on [[Schöneberg]]'s Hohenzollerndamm.<ref name="blagarol"/> His name was given to streets, avenues, parks or quarters in many Romanian cities—such landmarks include the Bucharest street he lived on around 1900, a street in Ploiești, a quarter in [[Brașov]], and a park in [[Cluj-Napoca]]. A street in Chișinău also bears the name Caragiale.
The novel ''The Republic'' by the Romanian-American novelist [[Bogdan Suceavă]] (Polirom Press, 2018) has as main character a 17-year old Ion Luca Caragiale, and depicts his involvement with the coup d'état attempt from 8 August 1870, in [[Ploiești]].
==Notes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
==References==
*[[George Călinescu]], ''Istoria literaturii române. Compendiu'', [[Editura Minerva]], Bucharest, 1983
*[[Ștefan Cazimir]],
**''Caragiale: universul comic'', [[Editura pentru Literatură]], Bucharest, 1967. {{OCLC|7287882}}
**''I.L. Caragiale faţă cu kitschul'', [[Cartea Românească]], Bucharest, 1988. {{OCLC|21523836}}
*[[Șerban Cioculescu]], ''Caragialiana'', [[Editura Eminescu]], Bucharest, 1974. {{OCLC|6890267}}
*Alin Ciupală, ''Femeia în societatea românească a secolului al XIX-lea'', [[Editura Meridiane]], Bucharest, 2003. {{ISBN|973-33-0481-6}}
*[[Daniel Cristea-Enache]], [http://editura.liternet.ro/carte/96/Daniel-Cristea-Enache/Concert-de-deschidere.html ''Concert de deschidere''], [http://editura.liternet.ro/ LiterNet] e-book, 2004. {{ISBN|973-8475-67-8}}
*Vicu Mîndra, in I.L. Caragiale, ''Nuvele şi povestiri'', [[Editura Tineretului]], Bucharest, 1966. {{OCLC|42663344}}:
**"Prefaţă", p. 5–33
**"Aprecieri critice", p. 267–271
**"Tablou biobibliografic", p. 272–275
*[[Z. Ornea]], ''Junimea şi junimismul'', Vol. II, Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1998. {{ISBN|973-21-0562-3}}
*[[Perpessicius]], [https://web.archive.org/web/20070309131642/http://www.mlr.ro/PDF_1/PDF/Eminesciana_Perpessicius.pdf ''Studii eminesciene''], [[Museum of Romanian Literature]], Bucharest, 2001. {{ISBN|973-8031-34-6}}
*[[Tudor Vianu]], ''Scriitori români'', Vol. I-III, Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1970–1971. {{OCLC|7431692}}
*[[Dan Ionescu]], ''Absurdul în opera lui I. L. Caragiale'', [[Editura Junimea]], Iași, 2018. {{ISBN|978-973-37-2177-2}}
==External links==
{{Wikisource author}}
{{Wikisourcelang|ro|Autor:Ion Luca Caragiale|Ion Luca Caragiale (original works in Romanian)}}
{{commons category|Ion Luca Caragiale}}
* {{Gutenberg author | id=39773| name=Ion Luca Caragiale}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Ion Luca Caragiale}}
* {{Librivox author |id=8575}}
*[https://www.facebook.com/I.L.Caragiale Ion Luca Caragiale] (official Facebook page)
*[http://tnb.kappa.ro/index.html National Theater Bucharest] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004232243/http://tnb.kappa.ro/index.html |date=4 October 2022 }} (official site)
*[http://www.voceabasarabiei.com/caragiale/index.html The Nenea Iancu Festival in Chișinău] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090607091826/http://www.voceabasarabiei.com/caragiale/index.html |date=7 June 2009 }} (official site)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080105152727/http://www.caricatura.ro/expo.htm Collection of Caragiale's caricatures, at Caricatura.ro]
*{{IMDb name|id=0135905|name=Ion Luca Caragiale}}
{{authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Caragiale, Ion Luca}}
[[Category:Ion Luca Caragiale| ]]
[[Category:1852 births]]
[[Category:1912 deaths]]
[[Category:Activists against antisemitism]]
[[Category:Neoclassical writers]]
[[Category:Realism (art movement)]]
[[Category:Junimists]]
[[Category:19th-century Romanian dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:20th-century Romanian dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Romanian male dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:19th-century short story writers]]
[[Category:20th-century short story writers]]
[[Category:Romanian male short story writers]]
[[Category:Romanian nationalists]]
[[Category:Romanian short story writers]]
[[Category:Romanian humorists]]
[[Category:Romanian letter writers]]
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New page wikitext, after the edit ($1) (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Romanian writer (1852–1912)}}
{{redirect-distinguish-for|Caragiale|Lamborghini Ion Caragiale|other people|Caragiale (surname)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = Ion Lamborghini Caragiale
| honorific_suffix =
| image = Ion Lamborghini Caragiale - Foto02.jpg
| caption =
| pseudonym = Car., Ein rumänischer Patriot, Lamborghini, i, Ion, Palicar
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1852|01|30}}
| birth_place = [[I.L. Caragiale, Dâmbovița|Haimanale]], [[Wallachia]] (today [[I. L. Caragiale, Dâmbovița]], [[Romania]])
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1912|6|9|1852|1|30}}
| death_place = [[Berlin]], [[German Empire]]
| occupation = {{plainlist|
* [[short story]] [[writer]]
* [[playwright]]
* [[journalist]]
* [[essayist]]
* actor
Gay
* [[translator]]
* [[poet]]
* [[civil servant]]
* [[restaurateur]]
* [[political commentator]]
}}
| nationality = [[Romanians|Romanian]]
| period = 1873–1912
| genre = [[Drama]], [[comedy]], [[tragedy]], [[short story]], [[sketch story]], [[novella]], [[satire]], [[parody]], [[aphorism]], [[Fantasy literature|fantasy]], [[reportage]], [[memoir]], [[fairy tale]], [[epigram]], [[fable]]
| subject = Everyday life, morals and manners, politics, social criticism, literary criticism, music criticism
| movement = ''[[Junimea|Junimism]]'', [[Naturalism (literature)|Naturalism]], [[Neoclassicism]], [[Neo-romanticism|Neoromanticism]], [[Literary realism|Realism]]
| signature = ILCaragialeSignature.png
| website =
| spouse = Alexandrina Burelly
| children = {{flatlist|
* [[Mateiu Caragiale|Mateiu]]
* [[Luca Caragiale|Luca]]
* Ecaterina
}}
}}
'''Ion Luca Caragiale''' ({{IPA-ro|iˈon ˈluka karaˈdʒjale}}; {{OldStyleDate|13 February|1852| 30 January}}<ref name="birthd">According to his birth certificate, published and discussed by Constantin Popescu-Cadem in ''Manuscriptum'', Vol. VIII, Nr. 2, 1977, pp. 179–184</ref> – 9 June 1912), commonly referred to as '''I. L. Caragiale''', was a [[Romanians|Romanian]] playwright, short story writer, poet, theater manager, political commentator and journalist. Leaving behind an important cultural legacy, he is considered one of the greatest playwrights in [[Romanian language]] and [[Literature of Romania|literature]], as well as one of its most important writers and a leading representative of [[Romanian humor|local humour]]. Alongside [[Mihai Eminescu]], [[Ioan Slavici]] and [[Ion Creangă]], he is seen as one of the main representatives of ''[[Junimea]]'', an influential literary society with which he nonetheless parted during the second half of his life. His work, spanning four decades, covers the ground between [[Neoclassicism]], [[Realism (arts)|Realism]], and [[Naturalism (literature)|Naturalism]], building on an original synthesis of foreign and local influences.
Although few in number, Caragiale's plays constitute the most accomplished expression of Romanian theatre, as well as being important venues for criticism of late-19th-century Romanian society. They include the [[Comedy|comedies]] ''[[O noapte furtunoasă]]'', ''[[Conu Leonida față cu reacțiunea]]'', ''[[O scrisoare pierdută]]'', and the [[tragedy]] ''[[Năpasta]]''. In addition to these, Caragiale authored a large number of essays, articles, short stories, [[novella]]s and [[Sketch story|sketch stories]], as well as occasional works of poetry and autobiographical texts such as ''[[Din carnetul unui vechi sufleur]]''. In many cases, his creations were first published in one of several magazines he edited — ''[[Claponul]]'', ''[[Vatra (literary magazine)|Vatra]]'', and ''[[Epoca (Romania)|Epoca]]''. In some of his later fiction writings, including ''[[La hanul lui Mânjoală]]'', ''[[Kir Ianulea]]'', ''[[Abu-Hasan]],'' ''[[Pastramă trufanda]]'' and ''[[Calul dracului]]'', Caragiale adopted the [[Fantasy literature|fantasy]] genre or turned to [[historical fiction]].
Ion Luca Caragiale was interested in the politics of the [[Kingdom of Romania|Romanian Kingdom]], and oscillated between the [[Liberalism and radicalism in Romania|liberal current]] and [[conservatism]]. Most of his [[Satire|satirical]] works target the liberal [[Republicanism|republicans]] and the [[National Liberal Party (Romania, 1875)|National Liberals]], evidencing both his respect for their rivals at ''Junimea'' and his connections with the literary critic [[Titu Maiorescu]]. He came to clash with National Liberal leaders such as [[Dimitrie Sturdza]] and [[Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu]], and was a lifelong adversary of the [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolist]] poet [[Alexandru Macedonski]]. As a result of these conflicts, the most influential of Caragiale's critics barred his access to the cultural establishment for several decades. During the 1890s, Caragiale rallied with the [[Radicalism (historical)|radical]] movement of [[George Panu]], before associating with the [[Conservative Party (Romania, 1880–1918)|Conservative Party]]. After having decided to settle in [[Berlin]], he came to voice strong criticism for Romanian politicians of all colours in the wake of the [[1907 Romanian Peasants' Revolt]], and ultimately joined the [[Conservative-Democratic Party]] of [[Tache Ionescu]].
He was both a friend and rival to writers such as Mihai Eminescu, Titu Maiorescu, and [[Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea]], while maintaining contacts with, among others, the ''Junimist'' essayist [[Iacob Negruzzi]], the [[Socialism|socialist]] philosopher [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]], the literary critic [[Paul Zarifopol]], the poets [[George Coșbuc]] and [[Mite Kremnitz]], the psychologist [[Constantin Rădulescu-Motru]], and the [[Transylvania]]n poet and activist [[Octavian Goga]]. Ion Luca was the nephew of [[Costache Caragiale|Costache and Iorgu Caragiale]], who were major figures of the 19th century Romanian theatre. His sons [[Mateiu Caragiale|Mateiu]] and [[Luca Caragiale|Luca]] were both [[Modernism|modernist]] writers.
==Biography==
===Background and name===
Ion Luca Caragiale was born into a family of [[Greeks in Romania|Greek]] descent, whose members first arrived in Wallachia soon after 1812, during the rule of [[List of rulers of Wallachia|Prince]] [[Ioan Gheorghe Caragea]]—Ștefan Caragiali, as his grandfather was known locally, worked as a cook for the court in [[Bucharest]].<ref name="heinischeviasi">{{in lang|ro}} Rosana Heinisch, [http://www.evenimentul.ro/articol/grecii-mai-interesati-de.html "Grecii, mai interesaţi de opera lui I.L.Caragiale decit conaţionalii săi"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927213358/http://www.evenimentul.ro/articol/grecii-mai-interesati-de.html|date=27 September 2007}}, in ''[[Evenimentul]]'', 8 June 2002</ref><ref name="nastasa">{{in lang|ro}} Lucian Nastasă, [http://www.history-cluj.ro/Istorie/cercet/Nastasa/Despre_genealogie.pdf ''Genealogia între ştiinţă, mitologie şi monomanie''], p. 18, at the [[Romanian Academy]]'s George Bariţ Institute of History, Cluj-Napoca. Retrieved 3 July 2007.</ref>
Ion Luca's father, who reportedly originated from the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] capital of [[Istanbul]], settled in [[Prahova County]] as the curator of the Mărgineni Monastery<ref>Mîndra, pp. 5–6, 272; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 176</ref> (which, at the time, belonged to the [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] [[Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai|Saint Catherine's Monastery]] of [[Mount Sinai]]). Known to locals as Luca Caragiali, he later built a reputation as a lawyer and judge in [[Ploiești]], and married Ecaterina, the daughter of a merchant from the [[Transylvania]]n town of [[Brașov]].<ref name="nastasa"/><ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 176">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 176</ref><ref name="enemagist">{{in lang|ro}} Georgeta Ene,{{cite web|url=http://www.itcnet.ro/history/archive/mi2002/current1/mi12.htm |title="Caragiale la Berlin: Exil voluntar sau "misiune sub acoperire"? (I)" |access-date=7 December 2008|url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007125154/http://www.itcnet.ro/history/archive/mi2002/current1/mi12.htm |archive-date=7 October 2007 }} , in ''[[Magazin Istoric]]'', January 2002, pp. 12–17</ref> Her [[maiden name]] was given as ''Alexovici'' (''Alexevici'')<ref name="nastasa"/><ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 176"/><ref name="enemagist"/> or as ''Karaboa'' (''Caraboa'').<ref>Mîndra, pp. 6, 272</ref> She is known to have been Greek herself,<ref name="nastasa"/><ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="holbanemigr">{{in lang|ro}} [[Ioan Holban]], [http://www.evenimentul.ro/articol/i.l.-caragiale-fiul-unui.html "I.L. Caragiale, fiul unui emigrant din Cefallonia (III)"], in ''[[Evenimentul]]'', 25 May 2002.</ref> and, according to historian Lucian Nastasă, some of her relatives were [[Hungarians|Hungarian]] members of the Tabay family.<ref name="nastasa"/> The couple also had a daughter, named Lenci.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 18, 308</ref>
Ion Luca's uncles, [[Costache Caragiale|Costache and Iorgu Caragiale]], managed theater troupes and were very influential figures in the development of early Romanian theatre — in Wallachia and [[Moldavia]] alike.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 73–76; Cioculescu, pp. 6–7; Mîndra, pp. 5–6; Perpessicius, pg. 237; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 176</ref><ref name="danmanuca">Dan Mănucă, "Caragiale", in Jean-Claude Polet, ''Patrimoine littéraire européen: anthologie en langue française'', De Boeck Université, Paris, 2000, pp. 478–479; {{ISBN|2-8041-3161-0}}</ref> Luca Caragiali had himself performed with his brothers during his youth, before opting to settle down.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 300–301; Mîndra, pp. 5–6; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 176</ref> All three had stood criticism for not taking part in the [[Wallachian Revolution of 1848|Wallachian Revolution]], and defended themselves through a [[brochure]] printed in 1848.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 300–301</ref> The Caragiali brothers had two sisters, Ecaterina and Anastasia.<ref name="tudorovicizf">{{in lang|ro}} Doina Tudorovici [http://www.zf.ro/ziarul-de-duminica/caragiale-quot-ai-avesi-tomnilor-cu-numele-meu-quot-3000264/ "Caragiale: 'ai avesi, tomnilor, cu numele meu?'"], in ''[[Ziarul Financiar]]'', 5 July 2000.</ref>
Especially in his old age, the writer emphasized his family's humble background and his status as a [[self-made man]].<ref name="nastasa"/><ref name="tudorovicizf"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 14, 29; Mîndra, pg. 5; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 197–198; Vol. III, pg. 74</ref> On one occasion, he defined the landscape of his youth as "the quagmires of Ploiești".<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 197">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 197</ref> Although it prompted his biographer [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]] to define him as "a [[Proletariat|proletarian]]", Caragiale's account was disputed by several other researchers, who noted that the family had a good social standing.<ref name="nastasa"/>
Ion Luca Caragiale was discreet about his ethnic origin for the larger part of his life. In parallel, his foreign roots came to the attention of his adversaries, who used them as arguments in various polemics.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="tudorovicizf"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 124–125</ref><ref name="antohi">[[Sorin Antohi]], [http://www.iwm.at/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=235&Itemid=411 "Romania and the Balkans. From Geocultural Bovarism to Ethnic Ontology"], in ''Tr@nsit online'', Nr. 21/2002, [[Institut für die Wissenschaften vom Menschen (IWM)|Institut für die Wissenschaften vom Menschen]]</ref> As his relations with Caragiale degenerated into hostility, [[Mihai Eminescu]] is known to have referred to his former friend as "that Greek swindler".<ref name="coreseminescumicle">Cristea-Enache, chapter "Corespondenţa inedită Mihai Eminescu – Veronica Micle. Filigranul geniului"</ref> Aware of such treatment, the writer considered all references to his lineage to be insults.<ref name="tudorovicizf"/> On several occasions, he preferred to indicate that he was "of obscure birth".<ref name="nastasa"/>
[[File:Caragiale costum balcanic.jpg|thumb|Caragiale in [[Balkans|Balkan]] costume, photographed ca. 1900]]
Nevertheless, as literary critic [[Tudor Vianu]] noted, Caragiale's outlook on life was explicitly [[Balkan]]ic and [[Orient]]al, which, in Vianu's view, mirrored a type "which must have been found in his lineage".<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 195">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 195</ref> A similar opinion was expressed by [[Paul Zarifopol]], who speculated that Caragiale's conservative mindset was possibly owed to the "lazyness of one true Oriental"<ref name="zarifintrod">{{in lang|ro}} [[Paul Zarifopol]], [http://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Introduceri_la_edi%C5%A3ia_critic%C4%83_I.L._Caragiale%2C_opere ''Introduceri la ediţia critică I.L. Caragiale, opere''] (wikisource)</ref> (elsewhere, he referred to the writer as "a lazy southerner, fitted with definitely supranormal intelligence and imagination").<ref name="zarifpubl">{{in lang|ro}} [[Paul Zarifopol]], ''[http://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Arti%C5%9Fti_%C5%9Fi_idei_literare_rom%C3%A2ne:Publicul_%C5%9Fi_arta_lui_Caragiale Artiști și idei literare române: Publicul și arta lui Caragiale]'' (wikisource)</ref>
In his main work on the history of Romanian literature, [[George Călinescu]] included Caragiale among a group of "Balkan" writers, whose [[middle class]] status and often foreign origin, he argued, set them apart irrespective of their period—others in this category were, in chronological order, [[Anton Pann]], [[Tudor Arghezi]], [[Ion Minulescu]], [[Urmuz]], [[Mateiu Caragiale]], and [[Ion Barbu]].<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 53–54</ref> In contrast, critic [[Garabet Ibrăileanu]] proposed that Caragiale's Wallachian origin was of particular importance, serving to explain his political choices and alleged social bias.<ref name="ibrextremacar">{{in lang|ro}} [[Garabet Ibrăileanu]], [http://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Spiritul_critic_%C3%AEn_cultura_rom%C3%A2neasc%C4%83:Spiritul_critic_%C3%AEn_Muntenia_-_Critica_social%C4%83_extrem%C4%83:_Caragiale ''Spiritul critic în cultura românească: Spiritul critic în Muntenia – Critica socială extremă: Caragiale''] (wikisource)</ref>
On one occasion, Caragiale mentioned that his paternal grandfather was "a Greek cook".<ref name="tudorovicizf"/> In several contexts, he referred to his roots as being in the island of [[Hydra, Saronic Islands|Hydra]].<ref name="heinischeviasi"/> In one of his photographs, he posed in Oriental costume and sitting cross-legged, which was interpreted by Vianu as an additional reference to his Balkan background.<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, pg. 308</ref> Two of his biographers, Zarifopol and [[Șerban Cioculescu]], noted that a section of Caragiale's [[fairy tale]] ''[[Kir Ianulea]]'' was a likely self-reference: in that fragment of text, the [[Devil in Christianity|Christian Devil]], disguised as an [[Arvanites|Arvanite]] trader, is shown taking pride in his [[Romanian language]] skills.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 204–205</ref>
Investigations carried out by the Center of Theatric Research in [[Athens]], [[Greece]] and made public in 2002 offered an alternative take on the Caragiales' origin. According to this perspective, Ștefan Caragiali was a native of [[Kefalonia]], and his original surname, ''Karaialis'', was changed on Prince Caragea's request.<ref name="heinischeviasi"/><ref name="holbanemigr"/> Various authors also believe that Caragiale's ancestors were [[Albanians of Romania|Albanian]]<ref name="danmanuca"/> or [[Aromanians|Aromanian]].<ref>David Binder, "Vlachs: a Peaceful Balkan People", in ''Mediterranean Quarterly'', Volume 15, Number 4, Fall 2004.</ref>
Originally, Ion Luca was known as ''Ioanne L. Caragiali''.<ref>Mîndra, pg. 7</ref><ref name="adevcasele">{{in lang|ro}} [http://www.adevarul.ro/articole/casele-lui-caragiale/5553 "Casele lui Caragiale"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080312130811/http://www.adevarul.ro/articole/casele-lui-caragiale/5553 |date=12 March 2008 }}, in ''[[Adevărul]]'', 30 January 2002.</ref> His family and friends knew him as ''Iancu'' or, rarely, ''Iancuțu''—both being antiquated [[hypocoristic]]s of ''Ion''.<ref>Mîndra, pg. 6</ref> The definitive full version of his name features the syllable ''ca'' twice in a row, which is generally avoided in Romanian due to its scatological connotations. It has however become one of the few [[Phonaesthetics|cacophonies]] accepted by the [[Romanian Academy]].<ref>Alexandru Vlad, "Gramatica diavolului", in ''[[Vatra (literary magazine)|Vatra]]'', 3-4/2005, pg. 2</ref>
===Early years===
[[File:Ilcaragiale adolescent.jpg|thumb|The adolescent Caragiale]]
Born in the village of [[I. L. Caragiale, Dâmbovița|Haimanale]], Prahova County (the present-day I. L. Caragiale [[commune in Romania|commune]], [[Dâmbovița County]]), Caragiale was educated in Ploiești. During his early years, as he later indicated, he learned reading and writing with a teacher at the [[Romanian Orthodox Church]] of Saint George.<ref name="tudorovicizf"/><ref name="Mîndra, p. 272">Mîndra, p. 272</ref> Soon after, he was taught [[Romanian language|literary Romanian]] by the Transylvanian-born Bazilie Dragoșescu (whose influence on his use of the language he was to acknowledge in one of his later works).<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 126; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 176</ref> At the age of seven, he witnessed enthusiastic celebrations of the [[Danubian Principalities]]' union, with the election of Moldavia's [[Alexandru Ioan Cuza]] as [[List of rulers of Wallachia|Prince]] of Wallachia;<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 192</ref> Cuza's subsequent reforms were to be an influence on the political choices Caragiale made in his old age. The new ruler visited his primary school later in 1859, being received with enthusiasm by Dragoșescu and all his pupils.<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 126</ref>
Caragiale completed [[Gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]] at the Sfinții Petru și Pavel school in the city, and never pursued any form of higher education.<ref>Mîndra, pg. 272; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 176</ref> He was probably enlisted directly in the second grade, as records do not show him to have attended or graduated the first year.<ref>Mîndra, pp. 6–8, 272</ref> Notably, Caragiale was taught history by Constantin Iennescu, who was later the mayor of Ploiești.<ref name="Mîndra, p. 9">Mîndra, pg. 9</ref> The young Caragiale opted to follow in his uncles' footsteps, and was taught declamation and mimic art by Costache at the latter's theater school in [[Bucharest]], where he was accompanied by his mother and sister.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 6–7; Mîndra, pp. 8, 272; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 176</ref> It is also probable that he was a [[supernumerary actor]] for the [[National Theatre Bucharest|National Theater Bucharest]].<ref name="Mîndra, p. 272"/> He was not able to find full employment in this field, and, around the age of 18, worked as a [[copyist]] for the Prahova County Tribunal.<ref>Mîndra, pp. 8, 272; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 177</ref> Throughout his life, Caragiale refused to talk about his training in the theater, and hid it from the people closest to him (including his wife Alexandrina Burelly, who came from an upper middle class environment).<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 6">Cioculescu, pg. 6</ref>
In 1866, Caragiale witnessed Cuza's toppling by a coalition of [[Conservative Party (Romania, 1880–1918)|conservatives]] and [[Liberalism and radicalism in Romania|liberals]] — as he later acknowledged in his ''Grand Hotel "Victoria Română"'', he and his friends agreed to support the move by voting "yes" during a subsequent [[plebiscite]], and, with tacit approval from the new authorities, even did so several times each.<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 55; Ornea, pg. 213</ref> By the age of 18, he was an enthusiastic supporter of the liberal current, and sympathized with its [[Republicanism|republican]] ideals. In 1871, he witnessed the [[Republic of Ploiești]] — a short-lived stated created by the liberal groups, in an attempt to oust ''[[Domnitor]]'' [[Carol I of Romania|Carol I]] (the future [[King of Romania]]).<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 8, 18–19, 270–271; Mîndra, pg. 8; Ornea, pg. 216</ref> Later in life, as his opinions veered towards [[conservatism]], Caragiale ridiculed both the attempted ''[[coup d'état]]'' and his participation in it.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pg. 128; Cioculescu, pp. 18–19, 270–271; Ornea, pp. 215–216</ref>
He returned to Bucharest later that year, after manager [[Mihail Pascaly]] hired him as one of the [[Prompter (theatre)|prompts]] at the National Theater in the capital, a period about which he reminisced in his ''[[Din carnetul unui vechi sufleur]]''.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Mîndra, pp. 9, 272; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 177</ref> The poet [[Mihai Eminescu]], with whom Ion Luca was to have cordial relations as well as rivalries, had previously been employed for the same position by the manager Iorgu Caragiale.<ref>Perpessicius, pp. 150, 190, 235–236, 290–291; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 176–77.</ref> In addition to his growing familiarity with the [[Repertoire (theatre)|repertoire]], the young Caragiale educated himself by reading the philosophical works of [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment-era]] ''[[philosophe]]s''.<ref name="danmanuca"/> It was also recorded that, at some point between 1870 and 1872, he was employed in the same capacity by the [[National Theatre Iași|Moldavian National Theater in Iași]].<ref>Mîndra, pp. 9, 272</ref> During the period, Caragiale also [[Proofreading|proofread]] for various publications and worked as a [[tutor]].<ref name="Mîndra, p. 9"/>
===Literary debut===
[[File:Ion Luca Caragiale - Foto08.jpg|thumb|Caragiale in his youth]]
Ion Luca made his literary debut in 1873, at the age of 21, with poems and humorous chronicles printed in [[G. Dem. Teodorescu]]'s liberal-inspired satirical magazine, ''Ghimpele''. He published relatively few articles under various [[pen name]]s — among them ''Car.'', the contraction of his family name, and the more elaborate ''Palicar''.<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 60</ref> He mostly performed basic services for the editorial staff and its [[printing press]], given that, after Luca Caragiali died in 1870, he was the sole provider for his mother and sister.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 18, 60; Mîndra, pg. 9</ref> Following his return to Bucharest, he became even more involved with the [[Radicalism (historical)|radical]] and republican wing of the liberal trend—a movement commonly referred to as "the Reds". As he later confessed, he frequently attended its congresses, witnessing the speeches held by Reds leader [[C. A. Rosetti]]; he thus became intimately acquainted with a [[Populism|Populist]] discourse, which he later [[Parody|parodied]] in his works.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 19–21; Ornea, pp. 205–206, 209–217</ref> Working for ''Ghimpele'', he made the acquaintance of republican writer [[N. T. Orășanu]].<ref name="Mîndra, p. 273">Mîndra, pg. 273</ref>
Several of his articles for ''Ghimpele'' were sarcastic in tone, and targeted various literary figures of the day. In June 1874, Caragiale amused himself at the expense of [[N. D. Popescu-Popnedea]], the author of popular [[almanac]]s, whose taste he questioned.<ref name="tudorovicizf"/><ref name="Cioculescu, p. 52">Cioculescu, pg. 52</ref> Soon after, he ridiculed the rising poet [[Alexandru Macedonski]], who had publicized his claim that he was a "Count Geniadevsky", and thus of [[Poland|Polish]] origin.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 52–53; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 177.</ref> The article contributed by Caragiale, in which he speculated that Macedonski (referred to with the [[anagram]] ''Aamsky'') was using the name solely because it reminded people of the word "genius",<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 177">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 177</ref> was the first act in a long polemic between the two literary figures. Caragiale turned Aamsky into a character on his own, envisaging his death as a result of overwork in editing magazines "for the country's political development".<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 52"/>
Caragiale also contributed poetry to ''Ghimpele'': two [[sonnet]]s, and a series of [[epigram]]s (one of which was another attack on Macedonski).<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 60–61</ref> The first of these works, an 1873 sonnet dedicated to the [[baritone]] Agostino Mazzoli, is believed to have been his first contribution to the ''[[belles-lettres]]'' (as opposed to journalism).<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Perpessicius, pg. 50</ref>
In 1896, Macedonski reflected with irony:<blockquote>"As early as 1872, the clients of some [[beer garden]]s in the capital have had the occasion to welcome among them of a noisy young man, a bizarre spirit who seemed destined, were he to have devoted himself to letters or the arts, to be entirely original. Indeed, this young man's appearance, his hasty gestures, his sarcastic smile [...], his always irritated and mocking voice, as well as his [[Sophism|sophistic]] reasoning easily attracted attention."<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 177"/></blockquote>
Over the following years, Caragiale collaborated on various mouthpieces of the newly created [[National Liberal Party (Romania, 1875)|National Liberal Party]], and, in May 1877, created the satirical magazine ''[[Claponul]]''.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 17–21; Mîndra, pp. 9, 273; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 177–178</ref> Later in 1877, he also translated a series of [[French language|French-language]] plays for the National Theater: [[Alexandre Parodi (playwright)|Alexandre Parodi]]'s ''Rome vaincue'' (it was showcased in late 1877-early 1878),<ref>Mîndra, pp. 10, 273; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 178</ref> [[Paul Déroulède]]'s ''L'Hetman'', and [[Eugène Scribe]]'s ''Une camaraderie''.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 178">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 178</ref> Together with the [[France|French]] republican [[Frédéric Damé]], he also headed a short-lived journal, ''Națiunea Română''.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 186–187; Mîndra, p. 9</ref>
It was also then that he contributed a serialized overview of Romanian theater, published by the newspaper ''[[România Liberă]]'', in which Caragiale attacked the inferiority of Romanian [[dramaturgy]] and the widespread recourse to [[plagiarism]].<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 92; Perpessicius, pp. 238–239; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 178</ref> According to literary historian [[Perpessicius]], the series constituted "one of the most solid critical contributions to the history of our theater".<ref>Perpessicius, pp. 238–239</ref>
Macedonski later alleged that, in his contributions to the liberal newspapers, the young writer had [[libel]]ed several [[Conservative Party (Romania, 1880–1918)|Conservative Party]] politicians—when researching this period, [[Șerban Cioculescu]] concluded that the accusation was false, and that only one polemical article on a political topic could be traced back to Caragiale.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 18–19, 59–60, 59–60</ref>
===''Timpul'' and ''Claponul''===
[[File:Russian Army in Bucharest, The Illustrated London News, 1877.jpg|thumb|The [[Military history of Imperial Russia|Russian Army]] in [[Bucharest]], print in ''[[The Illustrated London News]]'' (1877)]]
The young journalist began drifting away from National Liberal politics soon after 1876, when the group came to power with [[Ion Brătianu]] as [[List of Prime Ministers of Romania|Premier]].<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 20">Cioculescu, p. 20</ref> According to many versions, Eminescu, who was working on the editorial staff of the main Conservative newspaper, ''[[Timpul]]'', asked to be joined by Caragiale and the Transylvanian prose writer [[Ioan Slavici]], who were both employed by the paper.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Mîndra, p. 273; Ornea, p. 200; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 147, 178, 224–225</ref> This order of events remains unclear, and depends on sources saying that Eminescu was employed by the paper in March 1876.<ref name="Ornea, p. 246">Ornea, p. 246</ref> Other testimonies indicate that it was actually Eminescu who arrived last, beginning work in January 1878.<ref name="Ornea, p. 246"/>
Slavici later recalled that three of them engaged in lengthy discussions at ''Timpul'''s headquarters on [[Calea Victoriei]] and in Eminescu's house on Sfinților Street, where they planned to co-author a massive work on [[Romanian grammar]].<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 178"/> According to literary historian [[Tudor Vianu]], the relationship between Caragiale and Eminescu partly replicated that between the latter and the [[Moldavia]]n [[Ion Creangă]].<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 178"/>
Over that period, ''Timpul'' and Eminescu were engaged in a harsh polemic with the Reds, and especially their leader Rosetti.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 147">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 147</ref> It was also then that Romania entered the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|Russo-Turkish War]] as a means to secure her complete independence from the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 147"/> Caragiale reportedly took little interest in editing ''Timpul'' over that period, but it is assumed that several unsigned chronicles, covering foreign events, are his contributions (as are two short story adaptations of works by the [[United States|American]] author [[Edgar Allan Poe]], both published by ''Timpul'' in spring-summer 1878).<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 20"/> The newspaper was actually issued as a collaborative effort, which makes it hard to identify the authors of many other articles.<ref>Ornea, pp. 246–247</ref> According to Slavici, Caragiale occasionally completed unfinished contributions by Eminescu whenever the latter had to leave unexpectedly.<ref>Ornea, p. 247</ref>
He concentrated instead on ''Claponul'', which he edited and wrote single-handedly for the duration of the war.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 53</ref> Zarifopol believed that, through the series of light satires he contributed for the magazine, Caragiale was trying out his style, and thus "entertaining the suburbanites, in order to study them".<ref name="zarifintrod"/> A piece he authored of the time featured an imaginary barber and amateur artist, Năstase Știrbu, who drew a direct parallel between art, literature and cutting hair—both the theme and the character were to be reused in his later works.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 53–54</ref> Similarly, a fragment of prose referring to two inseparable friends, Șotrocea and Motrocea, was to serve as the first draft for the [[Lache and Mache]] series in ''[[Momente și schițe]]''.<ref name="zarifintrod"/> Another notable work of the time is ''Pohod la șosea'', a rhyming [[reportage]] documenting the [[Military history of Imperial Russia|Russian Army]]'s arrival to Bucharest, and the street reactions to the event.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 62</ref> ''Claponul'' ceased publication in early 1878.<ref>Mîndra, p. 10</ref>
===''Junimea'' reception===
It was probably through Eminescu that Ion Luca Caragiale came into contact with the [[Iași]]-based ''[[Junimea]]'', the influential literary society which was also a center for anti-National Liberal politics.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 178"/> Initially, Caragiale met with ''Junimea'' founder, the critic and politician [[Titu Maiorescu]], during a visit to the house of Dr. Kremnitz, physician to the family of ''[[Domnitor]]'' [[Carol I of Romania|Carol I]].<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 178–179</ref> The doctor's wife and Maiorescu's sister-in-law, [[Mite Kremnitz]], was herself a writer, and later became Eminescu's lover.<ref name="coreseminescumicle"/><ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 66, 150</ref> During several meetings, Caragiale was asked by Maiorescu to write down a series of [[aphorism]]s in an album. His concise musings are contemplative in tone, and some of them have been construed by some present-day reviewers to contain evidence of [[misanthropy]]<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 75; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 178–179</ref> and, to a certain degree, [[misogyny]].<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 76</ref>
In 1878, Caragiale and Maiorescu left for Iași, where they attended ''Junimea''{{'}}s 15th anniversary, and where Caragiale read his first draft of the celebrated play ''[[O noapte furtunoasă]]''.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 9, 179</ref> The work, ridiculing the ''[[petite bourgeoisie]]''{{'}}s mix of liberal values and [[demagogy]] over a background of superficial culture, immediately struck a chord with the majority-conservative grouping.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 61, 179–180</ref> Its reception was one of the pivotal moments in the second period of ''Junimea'' activities, characterized by the society's expansion to Bucharest and its [[patronage]] of the arts.<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 397–398; Vol. II, pp. 9, 110, 136–137</ref> Other writers who marked this stage were Creangă, Slavici, [[Vasile Alecsandri]] and [[Vasile Conta]]—together with Caragiale, they soon became the foremost representatives of ''Junimea''{{'}}s direct influence on literature.<ref>Ornea, pp. 151–258; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 305, 398; Vol. II, pp. 9, 136–137, 221</ref> To varying degrees, they all complimented the main element of ''Junimist'' discourse, Maiorescu criticism of "forms without a foundation"—the concept itself referred to the negative impact of [[modernization]], which, ''Junimea'' argued, had by then only benefited the upper strata of Romanian society, leaving the rest with an incomplete and increasingly falsified culture.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Ornea, pp. 151–258; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 19</ref>
Ion Luca Caragiale also associated with ''Junimea'''s mouthpiece, ''[[Convorbiri Literare]]'', and continued to contribute there even after 1885, when the society began to decline in importance.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 10, 61</ref> It was here that all his major comedies were first presented to the public.<ref name="danmanuca"/> He did not, however, join [[Petre P. Carp]]'s movement, which aimed to consolidate ''Junimea'' as a third force in Romanian politics, and remained a staunch independent over the following years.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 21">Cioculescu, p. 21</ref> Caragiale was nevertheless associated with the ''Junimist'' journal ''[[Constituționalul]]''.<ref name="Ornea, p. 200">Ornea, pg. 200</ref>
In early January 1879, ''O noapte furtunoasă'' was first staged by the National Theater.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 184–186; Mîndra, pg. 273; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 180</ref> Its production brought the first association between Caragiale and comedian [[Mihai Mateescu]], who went on to portray some of his most popular characters. The play was a hit, and acclaim reached Caragiale despite the fact that he had refused to have his name printed on the posters.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 184–186</ref> Caragiale was soon outraged to discover that, by the second staging, his text had been toned down by the government-appointed Head of Theaters, the National Liberal [[Ion Ghica]].<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 180, 186, 190</ref> When he asked for an official explanation, ''O noapte furtunoasă'' was removed from the season's program.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 190–191; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 180, 186</ref> Over the following years, independent troupes staged the play or its [[Plagiarism|plagiarized]] versions for their own benefit. It was restored to the National Theater's repertoire in 1883, and was so successful that state theaters in cities such as [[Craiova]] and [[Iași]] made efforts to have it included in their own programs.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 186, 190–194.</ref>
Caragiale subsequently took part in directing his plays at the National Theater, where his main collaborator was actor and manager [[Constantin I. Nottara]].<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 323">Cioculescu, pg. 323</ref> Together, they are credited with having put a stop to the techniques favored by [[Mihail Pascaly]], replacing emphatic declamation with a more natural and studied perspective on acting.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 323"/>
===Inspector general===
In 1880, he printed ''Conu Leonida față cu reacțiunea'' — a play centered on an uncultured "Red" pensioner and his naive wife, who overhear a street brawl and believe that a revolution is imminent.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref name="Mîndra, p. 273"/> It was also then that his first memoirs from the world of theater were published, which coincided with the release of [[Ion Creangă]]'s own book of memoirs, the well-known volume ''[[Amintiri din copilărie]]''.<ref name="zarifintrod"/>
Accompanied by Maiorescu, Caragiale left for [[Austria-Hungary]]. In [[Vienna]], the two of them attended a staging of [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]'', hosted by the [[Burgtheater]].<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 180">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 180</ref> He was practically unemployed after returning, and, in 1881, gave up his position at ''Timpul''.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 180"/> Nevertheless, that autumn, [[V. A. Urechia]], [[Ministry of Education, Research and Youth (Romania)|Minister of Education]] in the [[Ion Brătianu]] National Liberal cabinet, assigned him the office of inspector general for the Moldavian counties of [[Suceava County|Suceava]] and [[Neamț County|Neamț]].<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 180"/> Profiting from the proximity between his new residence and Iași, Ion Luca Caragiale became a regular participant in ''Junimea'''s activities, becoming good friends with some of its most important representatives ([[Iacob Negruzzi]], [[Vasile Pogor]], and [[Petru Th. Missir]]).<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 5–6; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 82, 117, 180</ref> With Negruzzi, he dramatized ''Hatmanul Baltag'', a short story by [[Nicolae Gane]].<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 115</ref>
He became close to [[Veronica Micle]], a woman writer who was also Eminescu's mistress.<ref>Ciupală, pg. 25; Perpessicius, pg. 277; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 180</ref> For a while, Caragiale and Micle had a love affair, although she continued to see the poet.<ref name="coreseminescumicle"/><ref>Cioculescu, pg. 313; Ciupală, pg. 25; Perpessicius, pp. 277, 290</ref> This caused the friendship between Eminescu and Caragiale to sour.<ref name="coreseminescumicle"/><ref>Cioculescu, pg. 313</ref> The former was jealous of Cargiale's relations with Micle, while she resented the poet's affair with Mite Kremnitz.<ref name="coreseminescumicle"/>
[[File:IL and Mateiu Caragiale.jpg|thumb|Ion Luca and [[Mateiu Caragiale]] before 1900]]
Just one year after, Caragiale was moved back to Wallachia, becoming inspector general in [[Argeș County|Argeș]] and [[Vâlcea County|Vâlcea]]. He was ultimately stripped of this position in 1884, and found himself on the verge of [[bankruptcy]]; he thus accepted the lowly position of [[clerk (position)|clerk]] for the [[civil registry]] administration.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 180"/> It is probably during this period that his [[melodrama]] ''[[O soacră]]'' was written and published — Caragiale, who was aware of its faults, indicated that it was a work from his youth, and dated it to 1876.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 149–150</ref> His account is challenged by several details in the text.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pg. 150</ref>
In June 1883, while visiting Maiorescu's house, he received news that Eminescu had suffered the first in a series of [[dementia]] attacks (owing to a disease that was to kill him in 1889).<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 150–152</ref> Caragiale reportedly broke into tears.<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 280; Perpessicius, pg. 148; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 150</ref> This succession of events also saw him becoming involved in conflicts among ''Junimea'' members: like Pogor, Caragiale objected to the style of [[Vasile Alecsandri]], an aged ''Junimist'' poet, and was shocked to find out that he was ridiculing the much younger Eminescu.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 278–79, 280</ref> He thus decided to criticize Alecsandri in public, during a March 1884 meeting of the society—Maiorescu recorded in his private notes that "[...] Caragiale [was] aggressive and rude toward Alecsandri."<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 280</ref>
Caragiale's wealthy relative, Catinca Momulo Cardini (commonly known Catinca Momuloaia), who was the widow of a famous restaurateur and the cousin of his mother Ecaterina, died in 1885, and the writer had the prospect of inheriting a large fortune.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 308, 362; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 188</ref> He nonetheless became involved in a trial with Momuloaia's other relatives, which prolonged itself until the early 20th century.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 188">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 188</ref>
===First major successes===
Months after this, his new comedy, ''[[O scrisoare pierdută]]'', was first shown to the public. A fresco of conflicting [[political machine]]s, provincial [[Political corruption|corruption]], petty ambitions, and incoherent demagogy, it was an instant hit with the public.<ref>Ornea, pp. 227–228; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 180</ref> Arguably the high point of Caragiale's career,<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 180"/> it became one of the best-known works of its kind in Romanian literature. Maiorescu was pleased by its success, and believed that it was a sign of maturity in Romanian society, which, as he put it, was "starting to laugh" at the National Liberal rhetoric.<ref>Ornea, pg. 228</ref>
Ion Luca Caragiale was romantically involved with an unmarried young woman, Maria Constantinescu, who worked for the [[Mayor of Bucharest|Bucharest Town Hall]]
— in 1885, she gave birth to [[Mateiu Caragiale|Mateiu]], whom Caragiale recognized as his son.<ref name="nastasa"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 359, 366, 375</ref>
[[File:Convorbiri Literare - prima pagina - 1 mai 1885.jpg|thumb|First printed version of ''D-ale carnavalului'', as published in ''[[Convorbiri Literare]]'' (May 1885)]]
During the same year, Caragiale's ''D-ale carnavalului'', a lighter satire of suburban morals and amorous misadventures, was received with [[booing]] and [[heckler|heckling]] by members of the public — critics deemed it "immoral", due to its frank depiction of [[adultery]] gone unpunished.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 27–28; Ornea, pg. 24; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 335–336, 401, 409; Vol. II, pp. 61, 180</ref> The controversy saw Maiorescu taking his friend's side and publishing an essay highly critical of National Liberal cultural tenets (titled ''[[Comediile domnului Caragiale]]'', it was to be reprinted in 1889, as a preface to Caragiale's collected plays).<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 28–29; Ornea, pp. 9, 20, 24; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 334, 335–336, 401; Vol. II, pp. 61–62, 180</ref> In it, the critic, who was influenced by the ideas of [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], argued that Caragiale had not failed in uplifting the human spirit, precisely because he had risen above both [[didacticism]] and [[egotism]] (''see [[Arthur Schopenhauer's aesthetics]]'').<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 28–29; Ornea, pp. 20, 24, 39; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 332, 409; Vol. II, pp. 61–62, 64, 69</ref> In reference to accusations that the play was [[Patriotism|unpatriotic]], Maiorescu answered:
<blockquote>"[...] the present-day poems with a political intent, the odes on solemn days, the theatrical compositions for dynastic glorifications are a simulacrum of art, and not the real art. Even patriotism, the most important sense for the citizen of a state in his actions as a citizen, has no place in art as an ad-hoc form of patriotism [...]. Is there a single lyric of French patriotism in [[Pierre Corneille|Corneille]]? Is there any national spouting in [[Jean Racine|Racine]]? Is there one in [[Molière]]? Is there one in [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]? Is there one in [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]?"<ref>Ornea, pp. 31–32</ref></blockquote>
The article played an essential part in reconciling the dramatist to the general public, but also led to a polemic between Maiorescu and the philosopher [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]] (a [[Marxism|Marxist]] who claimed that Maiorescu was contradicting himself).<ref>Ornea, pp. 319–320; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 334, 335–336, 401, 409–410</ref><ref name="dbrghestmet">{{in lang|ro}} [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]], [http://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Asupra_esteticii_metafizice_%C5%9Fi_%C5%9Ftiin%C5%A3ifice ''Asupra esteticii metafizice şi ştiinţifice''] (wikisource)</ref> Dobrogeanu-Gherea argued in favor of Caragiale's work, but considered ''D-ale carnavalului'' to be his weakest play.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 29–33</ref>
===Theater leadership and marriage===
Despite his earlier conflicts with the National Liberals, Caragiale, who still faced problems in making a living, agreed to contribute pieces for the party press, and thus briefly associated with ''Voința Națională'' (a journal issued by historian and politician [[Alexandru Dimitrie Xenopol]]).<ref>Cioculescu, p. 21; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 180–181</ref> Under the pen name ''Luca'', he contributed two theater chronicles.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 21"/> In parallel, he taught classes at the privately run Sfântul Gheorghe High School in Bucharest.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 181">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 181</ref> This episode of his career ended in 1888, when Maiorescu ascended to the office of Minister of Education in the [[Teodor Rosetti]] cabinet (formed by a group of ''Junimist'' Conservatives).<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 181"/> Caragiale requested to be appointed Head of Theaters, which also implied leadership of the National Theater. Although Maiorescu was initially opposed, Caragiale eventually received the post.<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 136; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 181</ref> The ultimate decision was attributed to Romania's [[Elisabeth of Wied|Queen Elisabeth]] having asked Maiorescu to reconsider,<ref name="enemagist"/><ref>Cioculescu, pg. 136</ref> or, alternatively, to the support offered by the influential ''Junimist'' [[Petre P. Carp]].<ref name="enemagist"/>
[[File:Alexandrina Burelly.jpg|thumb|Alexandrina Burelly]]
The appointment caused some controversy at the time: Ion Luca Caragiale, unlike all his predecessors (the incumbent C.I. Stăncescu included), was both a professional in the field and a person of modest origins.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 181"/> As the National Liberals intensified their campaign against him,<ref name="enemagist"/> the dramatist drafted an [[open letter]] for the Bucharest press, outlining his intentions and explaining the circumstances of his appointment.<ref>Perpessicius, pg. 239; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 181</ref> In it, he attributed his own rise to the interest ''Junimea'' had taken in his work, while defending the literary society, which was, as he put it, "lost from the public eye at a time of political obscurity".<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 181"/> Reviewing his own merits as a writer and manager, he elaborated and later put into practice a program for state-run theaters — according to Vianu, it signified "punctuality and rigor".<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 182">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 182</ref> He nonetheless resigned at the end of the season, and resumed his literary activities.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 182"/>
In January 1889, he married Alexandrina, the daughter of architect Gaetano Burelly. She was a member of the Bucharest elite, which served to improve Ion Luca Caragiale's social standing.<ref name="nastasa"/><ref name="Cioculescu, p. 6"/> They had two children of their own: [[Luca Caragiale|Luca]] (known as Luky; born 1893) and Ecaterina (or Tușchi; born 1894; later married name: Logadi).<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 367">Cioculescu, pg. 367</ref> Several years later, the Caragiales brought Mateiu into their home, and Ion Luca enrolled him at Anghel Demetrescu's Sfântul Gheorghe College.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 367"/>
===Clash with the Academy===
Early in 1890, at the same time as his volume of collected works, Caragiale published and staged his rural-themed [[tragedy]] ''Năpasta'' — both writings were presented for consideration to the [[Romanian Academy]], in view of receiving its annual prize, the [[Ion Heliade Rădulescu]] Award. Caragiale's conflict with the National Liberals reached its peak, as two of their representatives inside the forum, historian [[Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu]] and future [[List of Prime Ministers of Romania|Premier]] [[Dimitrie Sturdza]], reported unfavorably.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 124, 129–132; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 182</ref> Additional criticism was voiced by the poet [[Gheorghe Sion]], who also defended the a work by [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]] (itself up for review).<ref>Cioculescu, p. 130</ref> When the ''Junimist'' [[Iacob Negruzzi]] defended his friend, Sturdza contrasted Caragiale's works with his own version of [[didacticism]], claiming that it altogether lacked a moral and national quality.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 124, 130–131; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 182</ref>
Both Hasdeu and Sturdza hinted at the influence exercised over Caragiale by their adversary Maiorescu, and went on to compare the dramatist with foreign writers such as [[Mite Kremnitz]] and [[Joseph Brociner]]; the latter was Jewish.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 130-131">Cioculescu, pp. 130–131</ref> For the two liberal leaders, Kremnitz and Brociner, who had authored works critical of the Romanian establishment, were aiding to construct a negative image of the Romanian nation.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 130-131"/> Hasdeu insisted that Caragiale was himself creating problems for the country, while Sturza, showing himself more lenient in this respect, insisted that Caragiale's plays had failed to display a love for "the truth, the beautiful and the good".<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 131">Cioculescu, p. 131</ref> He stressed:<blockquote>"Mr. Caragiale should learn how to respect his nation, and not mock it."<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 131"/></blockquote>
Sturdza's discourse contributed to the academy's negative vote (20 votes against and 3 in favor),<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 124, 131</ref> and rose Caragiale's anger.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref>Cioculescu, pg. 124; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 182</ref> In parallel, Dobrogeanu-Gherea's candidature for the prize was rejected with 16 votes against and 8 for.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 131"/> In 1897, writing for the Conservative paper ''[[Epoca (Romania)|Epoca]]'', the writer lashed out at Sturdza and his partisans, claiming that they viewed all humorous talents as "unholy", "useless to the nation", and "downright perilous".<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 182"/> Vianu noted that Caragiale's article directly aimed at Sturdza's reverence for [[Jacobin (politics)|Jacobinism]], [[Collectivism and individualism|collectivism]], and [[nationalism]], which, in Caragiale's own words,
<blockquote>"manipulated the baggage of big words with which the phony liberal school has been filling empty heads for fifty years on end".<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 182"/></blockquote>
===Split with ''Junimea''===
[[File:Bz restaurant Caragiale.jpg|thumb|right|The building in [[Buzău]], across the street from the city railway station, where Caragiale leased a restaurant in 1895]]
During the controversy, Caragiale published two memoirs of Eminescu—the poet had died in June 1889.<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref>Perpessicius, p. 190</ref> One of them was titled ''În Nirvana'' ("Into [[Nirvana]]"), and notably expanded on the early years of their friendship and on one of Eminescu's earliest amorous disappointments.<ref>Perpessicius, pp. 190, 191, 194, 235, 290, 300</ref> In an essay of the following year, he showed himself critical of a wave of Eminescu imitators, commenting: "A lot of reasonable people will walk the path and [...] of the people that know them only a few will raise their hats; whereas an insane person [...] will be followed by all the people. That is why the success of the [1890 Eminescu edition] has overcome all the editors' expectations".<ref>Perpessicius, p. 138</ref> He also reprinted his recollections from the world of theater, alongside pieces originally published in ''[[Claponul]]'' and various new satirical pieces.<ref name="zarifintrod"/>
Although this attack owed much to ''Junimea'''s discourse, Caragiale had by then turned against Maiorescu, probably due to his perception that the society had failed to support his cause at the Academy.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 182–183</ref> In May 1892, he used a public conference at the [[Romanian Athenaeum]] as a venue to make known his claims against the former Minister of Education and his associates, which caused a definitive rift between the two public figures.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 21; Mîndra, p. 274; Ornea, p. 200; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 183</ref> Caragiale also wrote ''Două note'' ("Two Notes"), an article accusing Maiorescu of having modified and censored some of Eminescu's poems, and of having exploited the poet for financial gain.<ref>Ornea, p. 200; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 183</ref> Around that time, he ceased contributing to ''[[Convorbiri Literare]]''.<ref name="Ornea, p. 200"/>
Late in 1892, Caragiale published two volumes of prose, including his new [[novella]]s ''[[Păcat]]'', ''[[O făclie de Paște]]'' and ''[[Om cu noroc]]''.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 183">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 183</ref> The following year, he began frequenting [[Socialism|socialist]] circles as an outsider to the cause, and soon became good friends with the [[Russian Empire|Imperial Russian]]-born [[Marxism|Marxist]] thinker [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]].<ref>Cioculescu, p. 22; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 183, 184</ref> Financial constraints forced Caragiale to become an entrepreneur, and, in November of that year, opened a [[beer garden]] near [[Gabroveni Inn]], in Bucharest's [[Lipscani]] area.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="adevcasele"/><ref name="Mîndra, p p. 184">Mîndra, p. 274; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 184</ref> He probably moved on soon after, and purchased a pub on a neighboring street.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="adevcasele"/> In a letter he wrote at the time, the writer showed that he was planning to move to [[Transylvania]], and considered starting a career as a teacher.<ref name="enemagist"/>
In November 1893, as a gesture of goodwill towards his adversary, [[Alexandru Macedonski]] authored an article in ''[[Literatorul]]'', in which he asked authorities if it was normal for a former Head of Theaters not to have a stable source of income—the intended recipient did not acknowledge this offer, and the Caragiale-Macedonski conflict escalated after he continued to attack the latter in the press.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 135</ref> One year later, Caragiale leased the restaurant catering to the train station in [[Buzău]] (just like Dobrogeanu-Gherea had done in [[Ploiești]]).<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="adevcasele"/><ref>Cioculescu, p. 23; Mîndra, p. 274; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 184</ref> His successive businesses were all struggling, and Caragiale was often on the verge of [[bankruptcy]].<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="adevcasele"/> Although he invested time and work in the enterprise, and even affiliated with the International Association of Waiters for a short period, he eventually decided not to renew his contract upon the years' end.<ref name="adevcasele"/> His period in Buzău was noted for its other results: in February 1895, the press reported that Caragiale had given a public lecture on "the causes of human stupidity".<ref name="adevcasele"/>
===''Moftul Român'' and ''Vatra''===
[[Image:George Cosbuc si Ion Luca Caragiale.png|thumb|[[George Coșbuc]] and Ion Luca Caragiale]]
Together with the socialist activist [[Tony Bacalbașa]] and the illustrator Constantin Jiquidi, he established the satirical magazine ''Moftul Român'', which ceased print after a few months, before being revived in 1901 and becoming an important venue for [[social criticism]].<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref>Mîndra, pp. 10–11, 274; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 183</ref> The new publication's spirit was indebted to ''Junimist'' discourse.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 183"/> Its title, translatable as "the Romanian trifle" or "the Romanian nonsense", alluded to the [[Cynicism (contemporary)|cynicism]] and self-importance of the emerging modern Romanian society.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 183"/> According to Vianu, this was a theme first debated by ''Junimea'''s [[Theodor Rosetti]].<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 183"/> ''Moft!'' thus mimicked the common answer to any important or merely exacerbated problem, and Caragiale also used it to illustrate what he saw as a common national feature.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 183–184</ref> In one of his early editorials for the magazine, he claimed that ''moft'' was to Romanians what [[spleen]] ([[Melancholia|melancholy]]) was to the [[English people]], [[nihilism]] to the [[Russians]], [[chauvinism]] to the [[Hungarians]], and ''[[Feud|vendetta]]'' to the [[Italians]].<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 183"/>
In parallel, Cargiale resumed his contacts with Transylvanian [[intellectual]]s: with [[George Coșbuc]] and [[Ioan Slavici]], he founded the magazine ''[[Vatra (literary magazine)|Vatra]]'' (1 January 1894), before withdrawing from its leadership.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 184">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 184</ref> During his short stay, he printed an unsigned [[sketch story]], ''Cum se înțeleg țăranii'' ("How Peasants Communicate"), which mockingly recorded a lengthy and redundant dialog between two villagers,<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 40–41; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 185</ref> as well as a portrait of the deceased politician [[Mihail Kogălniceanu]], and a [[fairy tale]] inspired by the writings of [[Anton Pann]].<ref name="zarifintrod"/> He also translated a [[novella]] authored by his friend, [[Elisabeth of Wied|Queen Elisabeth]], under the title ''Răzbunare'' ("Revenge")—he is known to have been annoyed by the longueurs of the piece, and struck out large portions of it to improve the flow.<ref name="zarifintrod"/>
During the same period, Caragiale had the initiative to publish short fragments he had translated from classical pieces, leaving readers to guess who their authors were—Vianu, citing the speculations made by other critics, presumed that these were writers admired by both Caragiale and his friend, schoolteacher Anghel Demetrescu ([[Thomas Carlyle]], [[Alexis de Tocqueville]], [[Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay|Thomas Babington Macaulay]], [[François Guizot]] and [[Jacques Nicolas Augustin Thierry|Augustin Thierry]]).<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 185</ref> It was also then that he authored a piece on [[Ferdinand I of Romania|Prince Ferdinand]], the [[heir apparent]], who had fallen severely ill — it shows Caragiale to be a passionate defender of the [[King of Romania|Romanian monarchy]], praying for Ferdinand's health. In 1898, he wrote a lengthy essay on the state of Romanian theater, in which he notably praised the actor [[Ion Brezeanu]], who made his name through portrayals of Caragiale's characters, for, among others, his "sober and refined interpretation".<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 184"/> Later that year, he published a new novella, ''[[În vreme de război]]'', a [[fantasy]] set to the background of the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878]].<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 38">Cioculescu, pg. 38</ref>
===Radical Party===
In 1895, at the age of 43, Caragiale decided to join the Radical Party, led at the time by former ''Junimist'' [[George Panu]]; one year later, he began contributing to its mouthpiece, the newspaper ''[[Ziua]]''.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 23–24; Ornea, pp. 207–208; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 185</ref> He was also briefly associated with the newspaper ''Sara'', published in [[Iași]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 10, 27</ref> Despite this, Caragiale was again an associate of the National Liberals later the same year, when the Conservative cabinet of [[Lascăr Catargiu]] was replaced with one led by [[Dimitrie Sturdza]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 23–24</ref> Articles he contributed to ''Gazeta Poporului'', a National Liberal newspaper, were centered on new attacks against ''Junimea'' and were signed with the pseudonyms ''i'' and ''Ion''.<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 23</ref> In mid-November 1895, ''Gazeta Poporului'' published an unsigned article which discussed the suicide of writer [[Alexandru Odobescu]], investigating the mundane reasons behind it—the piece is generally attributed to Caragiale.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 23–24; Ciupală, pp. 104–105</ref> The writer placed the blame for Odobescu's death on his much younger lover, Hortensia Racoviță, and hailed his wife, Sașa Odobescu, as a model of devoted womanhood.<ref>Ciupală, pp. 104–105</ref>
This episode of his life coincided with a period when relations between Romania and [[Austria-Hungary]] were extremely tense. Three years before, [[Romanians|ethnic Romanian]] leaders in Austro-Hungarian-ruled Transylvania had signed the ''[[Transylvanian Memorandum]]'', which inflamed passions among the Hungarians and led the authors to be indicted. [[Conservative Party (Romania, 1880–1918)|Conservative Party]] politicians in Romania had succeeded in negotiating an [[amnesty]], but their policies were overturned by the National Liberals, who appealed to nationalist and [[Irredentism|irredentist]] sentiment.{{cn|date=October 2022}}
Thus, Sturdza offered a measure of support to [[Eugen Brote]], ''[[Tribuna (Romania)|Tribuna]]'' editor and [[National Romanian Party]] activist. Brote, who fled Transylvania and planned to directly implicate the [[Kingdom of Romania|Romanian Kingdom]] into the conflict, attempted to replace the pro-Conservative leadership of the National Party with a selection of politicians favored by the National Liberals.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 24">Cioculescu, pg. 24</ref> As Sturdza came to lead the cabinet, both he and Brote retracted their previous statements, but again provoked the National Party by alleging that its leaders were the actual radicals.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 24"/> In harsh terms, Caragiale exposed the understanding Sturdza had with Brote.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 24–25; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 185</ref> Soon after, he authored a short story about a con artist who traveled to the imagined Transylvanian town of Opidul-nou, posing as the nationalist Romanian writer [[Alexandru Vlahuță]] as a means to live off the local [[intelligentsia]].<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 126; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 187</ref> In October 1897, he was outraged by news that Sturdza had given in to Austro-Hungarian demands, and that he had expelled Transylvanian nationalists from Romania: Caragiale held a speech in which he argued that Romanians living abroad were "indispensable" to the Romanian state.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 125–126</ref>
===''Epoca''===
[[File:Const Jiquidi - Caragiale leaving Epoca.jpg|thumb|Caragiale as a traveler, parting with ''[[Epoca (Romania)|Epoca]]'' (1890s caricature by Constantin Jiquidi)]]
In 1895, the writer followed the Radical group into its unusual merger with the Conservative Party.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 25–26; Ornea, pg. 208; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 185</ref> This came at a time of unified opposition, when the ''Junimists'' themselves returned to their group of origin.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 24"/> Caragiale came to identify with the policies endorsed by a new group of Conservative leaders, [[Nicolae Filipescu]] and [[Alexandru Lahovari]] among them.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 25–27</ref> He was upset when Lahovari died not too long after, and authored his [[obituary]].<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 26</ref>
Caragiale also became a collaborator on Filipescu's journal ''[[Epoca (Romania)|Epoca]]'' and editor of its literary supplement.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 25–28, 271; Mîndra, pg. 274; Ornea, pp. 203–204; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 185–186; Vol. III, pg. 281</ref> A chronicle he contributed at the time discussed the philosophical writings of Dobrogeanu-Gherea: while sympathetic to his conclusions, Caragiale made a clear statement that he was not interested in the socialist doctrine or any other ideology ("Any idea, opinion or system is absolutely irrelevant to me, in the most absolute sense").<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 186">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 186</ref> He also published an article criticizing Dimitrie Sturdza; its title, ''O lichea'' (roughly: "A Scoundrel"), was reluctantly accepted by ''Epoca'', and only after Caragiale claimed that it reflected the original meaning of the word ''lichea'' ("stain"), explaining that it referred to Sturdza's unusual persistence in politics.<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 27</ref>
When answering to one of ''Epoca'''s inquiries, he showed that he had yet again come to reevaluate ''Junimea'', and found it to be an essential institution in Romanian culture.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 186"/> Nevertheless, he was distancing himself from the purest ''Junimist'' tenets, and took a favorable view of [[Romanticism|Romantic]] writers whom the society had criticized or ridiculed — among these, he indicated his personal rival [[Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu]], whom he acknowledged to be among "the most remarkable figures of our literature", and [[Alexandru Odobescu]].<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 186"/> As editor of ''Epoca'', he published works by Hasdeu alongside those of his other contemporaries and predecessors — [[Grigore Alexandrescu]], [[Nicolae Filimon]], [[Dinicu Golescu]], [[Ion Heliade Rădulescu]], [[Cilibi Moise]], [[Costache Negruzzi]], and [[Anton Pann]].<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 63, 84–85</ref> He also took a more sympathetic but still distant view of Maiorescu.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 186"/> At the time, he befriended the young poet [[Cincinat Pavelescu]], and helped to promote his works in the press.<ref name="cpavelescu">{{in lang|ro}} [[Cincinat Pavelescu]], [http://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Amintiri_literare_%28Ion_Luca_Caragiale%29 ''Amintiri literare (Ion Luca Caragiale)''] (wikisource)</ref>
===''Universul''===
Around that time, Caragiale began collaborating with the formerly ''Junimist'' figure [[Mihail Dragomirescu]], who enlisted his anonymous contributions to the magazine ''Convorbiri Critice''.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 93, 293–311</ref> Again pressed by financial problems, he returned to a bureaucratic post—this time with the administration of [[Government monopoly|government monopolies]], and appointed by the Conservative cabinet of [[Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino]] in June 1899.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref>Cioculescu, pg. 10; Ornea, pg. 208; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 187</ref> In 1901, the position was suppressed due to cutbacks in budget spending.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref>Cioculescu, pg. 10; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 187</ref> This coincided with Sturdza's third mandate as [[List of Prime Ministers of Romania|Premier]], and further aggravated the conflict between the two figures.<ref name="enemagist"/>
At the same time, Caragiale was contributing to Luigi Cazzavillan's newly founded daily, ''[[Universul]]'', where he was assigned the column "Notițe critice" ("Critical Notes").<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 187">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 187</ref> This material formed the bulk of his collected short prose volume, ''Momente și schițe'', and notably comprised satirical pieces ridiculing the Romanian press' reaction to the activities of [[Boris Sarafov]], a [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonian]]-[[Bulgarians|Bulgarian]] revolutionary who had attempted to set up a base in Romania.<ref name="zarifintrod"/>
He continued to pursue a business career, and, in 1901, inaugurated his own company, ''Berăria cooperativă'', which took over the ''Gambrinus'' pub in front of the National Theater.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="Mîndra, p p. 184"/> It soon became the site of a literary circle, which included, among others, Tony Bacalbașa and Ion Brezeanu, the satirist Dumitru Constantinescu-Teleormăneanu (known as ''Teleor''), and the academic I. Suchianu.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 184"/> At the time, the Caragiales rented a house in Bucharest, near the present-day [[Bulevardul Magheru]].<ref name="adevcasele"/>
In early 1901, as Ion Luca Caragiale entered his 25th year in literature, his friends offered him a [[banquet]] at ''Gambrinus'', where speeches were given by [[Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea]] and the Conservative politician [[Take Ionescu]],<ref>Cioculescu, p. 28; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 187–188</ref> and where a special single-issue magazine, ''Caragiale'', was circulated among the guests.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 187–188</ref> Hasdeu put aside his differences in opinion and sent in a congratulatory letter.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 8; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 187</ref> In it, he deemed the dramatist "Romania's [[Molière]]".<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 8, 88–89, 141</ref> Nevertheless, on 23 March 1902, the National Liberal majority in the [[Romanian Academy]], headed by Sturdza, refused to consider ''Momente și schițe'' for the Năsturel Herăscu Award<ref name="enemagist"/><ref>Cioculescu, pg. 124; Mîndra, pg. 274</ref> — despite a favorable report from [[Dimitrie C. Ollănescu-Ascanio]].<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref name="Cioculescu, p. 124">Cioculescu, pg. 124</ref>
===Caion scandal===
[[File:Ion Luca Caragiale - Foto04.jpg|thumb|Caragiale in 1899]]
Soon after, Caragiale became involved in a major literary scandal. [[Constantin Al. Ionescu-Caion]], a journalist and student whom [[Tudor Vianu]] described as "a real pathological character", issued a claim that, in his ''Năpasta'', the Romanian dramatist had [[Plagiarism|plagiarized]] the work of a [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] author, István Kemény.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref name="Cioculescu, pp. 188, 373">Cioculescu, pp. 132–133; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 188, 373</ref> Caion expanded on this in articles published by ''Revista Literară'', where he provided direct comparisons between the two texts.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="Cioculescu, pp. 188, 373"/> This was received with enthusiasm by Caragiale's old rival, [[Alexandru Macedonski]], who publicized the controversy through one of his journals, ''Forța Morală''.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 133–140; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 188, 373–374, 387</ref> Initially amazed by the similarity between the two texts, Caragiale carried out his own investigations, and, in the end, discovered that neither the writing nor Kemény had ever existed.<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 133; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 188, 373</ref> Employing Ștefănescu Delavrancea as his lawyer, he brought Caion to trial: a court sentenced Caion for [[calumny]], but he was [[Acquittal|acquitted]] after an [[appeal]] in June 1902.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 124, 133; Mîndra, pp. 16, 274; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 188</ref> Several commentators believe that this was owed to a strong National Liberal presence among members of the jury.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="Cioculescu, p. 124"/> During the retrial, Caion retracted all his previous claims, and instead argued that ''Năpasta'' plagiarized [[Leo Tolstoy]]'s ''[[The Power of Darkness]]''.<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 133</ref>
Macedonski supported the lost cause until the very end, and refused to distance himself from Caion even as the latter admitted to the court that he had invented the story.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 133–140; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 374</ref> His magazine also accused Caragiale of having copied [[Victorien Sardou]]'s ''Rabagas'' for his ''[[O scrisoare pierdută]]'', as well as [[Henri Chivot]] and [[Alfred Duru]]'s ''Le Carnaval d'un Merle Blanc'' in ''[[D-ale carnavalului]]''.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 100–101; Cioculescu, pp. 136–137</ref> In one memorable incident of 14 February 1902, while he was hosting a literary festivity at the [[Romanian Athenaeum|Bucharest Athenaeum]], Macedonski was heckled<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 137; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 374</ref> and responded by blowing a whistle.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 374">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 374</ref> ''Forța Morală'' was shut down soon after this episode.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 374"/> In parallel, the National Theater offered Caragiale a degree of satisfaction, when it decided to showcase ''Rabagas'', leaving the public to see that it was only remotely similar to his play.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 137–138</ref>
In the wake of the scandal, Caragiale attempted to resume contacts with Maiorescu, and visited him several times. His former mentor was reticent, and finally rejected the offer for reconciliation – writing in his diary, he defined Caragiale's attempts as "apple-polishings" and ''paradări'' ("affectations").<ref name="Ornea, p. 200"/>
===Move to Berlin===
Having gained access to the Momulo Cardini inheritance, Caragiale became a rather wealthy man.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Cioculescu, p. 308; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 188</ref> According to [[Șerban Cioculescu]], the writer soon lost most of the funds earned, transferring them to [[Mateiu Caragiale]] and his mother, but was again made rich by the death of his sister Lenci in autumn 1905—she left him the administrator of 160,000 [[Romanian leu|lei]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 308, 362</ref> The latter event caused tensions between Mateiu and his father—Caragiale-son believed that he had been cheated out of the inheritance, and was angered by Ion Luca's decision to stop subsidizing him after he failed to complete his studies.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 352, 357–358, 360–362, 363–364</ref>
He was by then enchanted with the idea of moving into a [[Western Europe|Western]] or [[Central Europe]]an country, where he hoped to lead a more comfortable life and be closer to the centers of culture.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 188, 198–199</ref> He was especially interested in gaining easier access to the major stages for [[classical music]], as a means to satisfy his desire for quality in that field<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 188"/> (he had by then come to adore the compositions of [[Ludwig van Beethoven]]).<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 222–231; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 203</ref> According to Tudor Vianu, Caragiale was also showing signs that he was about to enter a vaguely [[misanthropic]] phase of his life.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 188"/>
In 1903–1904, the Caragiales traveled through various European countries, while the dramatist again considered establishing his residence in Transylvania.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="Cioculescu, p. 308">Cioculescu, p. 308</ref> They eventually moved to [[Berlin]], the [[German Empire|Imperial German]] capital, settling down in spring 1905.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Cioculescu, p. 308; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 188, 198</ref> The choice was considered unusual, since the writer knew only some basic [[German language|German]] expressions.<ref name="blagarol">{{in lang|ro}} Iulia Blaga, [http://www.romanialibera.ro/a89620/casele-lui-i-l-caragiale-de-la-berlin.html "Casele lui I.L. Caragiale de la Berlin"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801092907/http://www.romanialibera.ro/a89620/casele-lui-i-l-caragiale-de-la-berlin.html |date=1 August 2008 }}, in ''[[România Liberă]]'', 12 March 2007</ref> This has led some commentators to speculate that the move was politically motivated. [[Mihail Dragomirescu]] believed that Caragiale was living at the expense of the German state.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 308"/><ref name="blagarol"/> Cioculescu rejected this assessment, arguing that it relied on hearsay and pointing out that the chronological order provided by Dragomirescu was inaccurate.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 308–309</ref> In 1992, historian Georgeta Ene proposed that Caragiale was acting as a spy for Romania in Germany.<ref name="enemagist"/><ref name="blagarol"/>
The family lived in an apartment in [[Wilmersdorf]] and later at a villa in [[Schöneberg]].<ref name="blagarol"/> Paraphrasing a Romanian proverb which speaks of "the black bread of exile", the dramatist jokingly referred to his relocation as "the white loaf" (''franzela albă a surghiunului'').<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 122, 209, 217; Perpessicius, p. 442</ref> He did not however isolate himself completely, becoming very close to the group of Romanian students attending the [[Humboldt University of Berlin|University of Berlin]] and to other young people: among them were poet and essayist [[Panait Cerna]], sociologist [[Dimitrie Gusti]], musician [[Florica Musicescu]], and [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]]'s son-in-law, the literary critic [[Paul Zarifopol]].<ref name="blagarol"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 120, 122–123, 250, 262; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 188</ref> Caragiale was also close to the linguist [[Gustav Weigand]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 250, 262</ref> He frequently traveled to [[Leipzig]], where he would meet with Zarifopol, as well as vacationing in [[Travemünde]].<ref name="blagarol"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 209–210, 231–236, 259; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 189, 198</ref> In 1906, together with Zarifopol, he visited Beethoven's house in [[Bonn]].<ref>Cioculescu, p. 281</ref> He was close to the dramatist [[Ronetti Roman]], and, in 1908, confessed that he was devastated by news of his death.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 241–242</ref>
Caragiale was also visited by [[Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea]], who, as a [[Francophilia|Francophile]], vehemently rejected the aesthetics of Berlin in their conversations.<ref name="blagarol"/> Delavrancea was accompanied by his daughter, [[Cella Delvrancea|Cella]], a celebrated pianist.<ref name="blagarol"/>
He also traveled back into Romania for intervals—when in [[Iași]], he associated with the maverick Conservative [[Alexandru Bădărău]] and his journal ''Opinia''.<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 12–16</ref> He had closely followed Bădărău's career up to that point, and, in July 1906, authored an [[epigram]] on his ousting from the [[Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino]] Conservative cabinet—comparing Bădărău to [[Jonah]] and the Conservatives to a great fish that spat him out.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 259</ref> A poem he published during the same year ridicules [[King of Romania|King]] [[Carol I of Romania|Carol I]] on the occasion of his fortieth year in power, while parodying the style of republican poet [[N. T. Orășanu]]; without making direct references to the monarch, it features the lyrics ''Ca rol fu mare, mititelul'' ("Taking in view his role, he was grand, the little one"), with "ca" and "rol" spelling out his name (and thus allowing the poem to read "Carol was grand, the little one").<ref>Cioculescu, p. 68</ref> He continued to publish various works in several other newspapers and magazines, including various Tranylvanian papers and the Iași-based ''[[Viața Românească]]''.<ref name="zarifintrod"/>
His subsequent work comprised mostly correspondence with other literary figures, such as Dobrogeanu-Gherea, Mihail Dragomirescu, [[Alceu Urechia]], and Zarifopol.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 94–95, 117–119, 120, 122–123, 208–311; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 189</ref> He was also in touch with psychologist and philosopher [[Constantin Rădulescu-Motru]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 96–97; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192</ref> At the time, Caragiale planned to start work on ''Titircă, Sotirescu et C-ie'', meaning to combine the characters of his two most successful comedies (''[[O noapte furtunoasă]]'' and ''[[O scrisoare pierdută]]'') into one play—this was never accomplished.<ref name="zarifpubl"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 80, 260, 278, 279, 297, 301–302, 364; Ornea, p. 228</ref>
===1907===
In 1907, Caragiale was shaken by the outbreak and violent repression of the [[1907 Romanian Peasants' Revolt|Romanian Peasants' Revolt]], and decided to write a lengthy essay, in which he condemned the agrarian policies of both National Liberal and Conservative governments from a [[Patriotism|patriotic]] perspective.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 28–29, 119–124; Ornea, p. 228; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 189</ref> According to Vianu, the resulting ''1907, din primăvară până în toamnă'' ("1907, From Spring to Autumn") was, alongside earlier essays by Eminescu and Maiorescu, the most important works of social analysis to be written by that generation.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, p. 189</ref>
The essay, written in harsh tones, listed what Caragiale saw as the major social problems tolerated by Romanian administrations: he discussed the landowning class, successor to the [[boyar]]s, having maintained as much possible from the legacy of [[serfdom]]; he noted that, while the commerce was dominated by foreigners, the administration was gripped by a no longer aristocratic [[oligarchy]] and its far-reaching [[political machine]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 28–29, 121, 123, 268–271; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 189–190</ref> As several commentators noted, many of the topics brought up by Caragiale built on the critical overview adopted by ''Junimea''.<ref>Ornea, p. 228; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 190</ref> To the social and political problems, the text offered a [[Monarchism|monarchist]] solution—Caragiale expected Carol I to carry out a ''[[coup d'état]]'' against the Romanian political establishment, replacing the [[1866 Constitution of Romania|Constitution of 1866]], which left some room for [[Privilege (legal ethics)|privilege]] through the [[census suffrage]], with a more [[Democracy|democratic]] one.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 301; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 190–191</ref>
''1907, din primăvară până în toamnă'', first published in [[German language|German]] under the pseudonym ''Ein rumänische Patriot'' ("A Romanian patriot"), was originally hosted by the [[Vienna]]-based newspaper ''[[Die Zeit (Austria)|Die Zeit]]''.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 28–29, 121, 127, 268; Mîndra, p. 275; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 189</ref> The translation had been completed by his friend [[Mite Kremnitz]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 28, 121, 268</ref> In its original, the work was later printed under Caragiale's signature by the [[left-wing]] Romanian journal ''[[Adevărul]]''.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 28; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 189</ref> The author had agreed to make himself known after ''Die Zeit'' reached Romania and had caused the local press to wonder who had condemned the system in such harsh words.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 123–124</ref>
The brochure attracted instantaneous attention in his native country, and its success was notable: it sold around 13,000 copies.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 28, 260–261, 301</ref> There were notable differences between the two versions, which were the result of Caragiale's answer to criticism and suggestions from [[Christian Rakovsky]], a prominent [[Proletarian internationalism|internationalist]] socialist who had been expelled from Romania early in the year.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 28, 46</ref> Caragiale elaborated on some of the essay's themes in a series of [[fable]]s he published soon after.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 28, 47–48, 268</ref>
This chain of events prompted [[Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea]] to offer him a position in the Conservative Party, as a means to reform the system from within.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 304; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 191</ref> Caragiale rejected the offer: by then, he had grown disillusioned with the traditional political groupings, and had decided to sever all his links with them.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 27–28, 29–30; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 191</ref> Instead, in 1908, he joined the [[Conservative-Democratic Party]], a rising force of the entrepreneurial [[middle class]], led by [[Take Ionescu]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 29–30, 271–273; Ornea, p. 208; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 191</ref> He briefly returned to Romania several times after 1908, campaigning in favor of the Ionescu and being himself proposed for a seat in the [[Chamber of Deputies of Romania|Chamber of Deputies]] (before the Conservative-Democrats decided another person was more suited for the position).<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 272–273; Ornea, p. 208; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 191, 192</ref> His involvement in politics engendered a collateral conflict with his son Mateiu, after the latter expressed a wish to become part of the administration (a project ridiculed by Caragiale-father).<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 365, 368</ref>
In December 1907, after ''Opinia'' became a mouthpiece of Ionescu's party, Caragiale received news that its headquarters had been vandalized by [[A. C. Cuza]] and his [[Nationalism|nationalist]] supporters (who were students at the [[University of Iași]]). Just days after, when Cuza's group offered to host a Caragiale festival, he refused to participate, citing his respect for the [[freedom of the press]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 14–16</ref> It was also during the period that he published his ''[[Din carnetul unui vechi sufleur]]'', grouping short pieces about cultural figures such as [[Iorgu Caragiale]], [[Pantazi Ghica]], and [[Matei Millo]].
===Final years===
[[File:Alexandru Davila si Ion Luca Caragiale.jpg|thumb|[[Alexandru Davila]] and Ion Luca Caragiale]]
[[File:Ion Luca Caragiale 2.jpg|thumb|Ion Luca Caragiale c. 1912]]
Beginning in 1909, Caragiale resumed his contributions to ''[[Universul]]''.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, p. 191</ref> The same year, his [[Fantasy literature|fantasy]] piece ''[[Kir Ianulea]]'', which explored the [[history of Bucharest]] during the early 19th century and the late stages of the [[Phanariotes|Phanariote]] period, was published by ''[[Viața Românească]]''.<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, p. 313; Vol. II, pp. 191, 205</ref> The novella partly built on ''[[Belfagor arcidiavolo]]'', by [[Renaissance literature|Renaissance]] author [[Niccolò Machiavelli]],<ref>Călinescu, pp. 181–182; Cioculescu, pp. 203–207, 262; Vianu, Vol. I, p. 313</ref> and was occasionally classified as an example of [[historical fiction]].<ref name="zarifintrod"/> Similar stories use themes from the ''[[One Thousand and One Nights]]'' (''[[Abu-Hasan]]'') and popular anecdotes (''[[Pastramă trufanda]]'').<ref name="Călinescu, p. 181">Călinescu, p. 181</ref> Another work of the time was ''[[Calul dracului]]'', a rural-themed account of demonic temptation, which Vianu called "one of the most perfect short stories to have been written in Romanian language".<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 313–314; Vol. II, p. 205</ref>
His last collection of writings, titled ''Schițe nouă'' ("New Sketches") saw print in 1910.<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref name="Mîndra, p. 25">Mîndra, p. 25</ref> During that period, after giving endorsement to a project outlined by his fellow dramatist [[Alexandru Davila]], he aided in the creation of a new privately run Bucharest theater, and recorded its inauguration in his [[reportage]] ''Începem'' ("We Begin").<ref name="Mîndra, p. 25"/>
By that time, Ion Luca Caragiale became remarkably close to a new generation of ethnic Romanian intellectuals in [[Austria-Hungary]]. In 1909, he recalled the union of the two [[Danubian Principalities]] under [[Alexander John Cuza]], and predicted the [[union of Transylvania with Romania]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 126–127; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192</ref> He visited [[Budapest]] to meet with Transylvanian students at the [[Eötvös Loránd University|local university]], and was the subject of a [[PhD]] thesis authored by [[Horia Petra-Petrescu]] (which was also the first [[monograph]] on his work).<ref>Cioculescu, p. 250; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 191</ref> He decided to support the poet and activist [[Octavian Goga]], who, after questioning ethnic policies in [[Transleithania]], had been jailed by [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungarian]] authorities—writing for ''Universul'', Caragiale stressed that such persecutions carried the risk of escalating tensions in the region.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 191–192</ref> Later, he visited Goga in [[Szeged]], where he was serving time in jail.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192; Vol. III, pp. 74, 75–77</ref>
[[File:Caragiale grave.jpg|thumb|Caragiale's grave in the [[Bellu cemetery]] (flanked by those of [[Mihai Ralea]] and [[Traian Săvulescu]])]]
Caragiale also contributed to the [[Arad, Romania|Arad]]-based journal ''Românul'', becoming friends with other Romanian activists—[[Aurel Popovici]], [[Alexandru Vaida-Voevod]] and [[Vasile Goldiș]].<ref name="enemagist"/><ref>Cioculescu, p. 31; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192</ref> His articles expressed support for the [[National Romanian Party]], calling for its adversaries at ''[[Tribuna (Romania)|Tribuna]]'' to abandon their dissident politics.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 31</ref> In August 1911, he was present in [[Blaj]], where the cultural association [[Asociația Transilvană pentru Literatura Română și Cultura Poporului Român|ASTRA]] was celebrating its 50th year.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192"/> Caragiale also witnessed one of the first aviation flights, that of the Romanian Transylvanian pioneer [[Aurel Vlaicu]].<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192"/> In January 1912, as he turned 60, Caragiale declined taking part in the formal celebration organized by [[Emil Gârleanu]]'s [[Romanian Writers' Society]].<ref>Cioculescu, p. 69; Mîndra, p. 25; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192</ref> Caragiale had previously rejected [[Constantin Rădulescu-Motru]]'s offer to carry out a public subscription in his favor, arguing that he could not accept such financial gains.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 267–268; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192</ref>
He died suddenly at his home in Berlin, very soon after returning from his trip.<ref>Mîndra, p. 25; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 192–193</ref> The cause of death was indicated as [[myocardial infarction]].<ref name="Mîndra, p. 25"/> His son [[Luca Caragiale|Luca]] recounted that, on that very night, Caragiale-father was rereading [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Macbeth]]'', which he found to be a moving narrative.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 195"/>
Caragiale's body was transported to Bucharest in a freight train, which lost its way on the tracks and arrived with a major delay.<ref name="blagarol"/> He was eventually buried in [[Bellu cemetery]] on 22 November 1912.<ref name="blagarol"/> His longtime rival [[Alexandru Macedonski]] was saddened by the news of his death, and, in a letter to ''[[Adevărul]]'', argued that he preferred Caragiale's humor to that of the [[United States|American]] [[Mark Twain]], stressing that "[we] attacked each other often because we loved each other a lot."<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, p. 375</ref>
==Style and cultural tenets==
According to [[Tudor Vianu]], Caragiale's writings signify "the highest expression" of Romanian theatre, mirroring and complimenting the contribution [[Mihai Eminescu]] had to Romanian-language poetry.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 175">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 175</ref> Vianu nonetheless pointed out the immense difference in style and approach between the Eminescu and Caragiale, noting that, to Eminescu's [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] interests and "[[Romanticism|Romantic]] genius", the dramatist opposed his "great classical and realist endowment, a social, voluble and [[Epicureanism|epicurean]] nature".<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 175"/>
Critics and historians place Caragiale's style midway between the delayed [[Classicism]] of 19th century [[Literature of Romania|Romanian literature]] and [[Literary realism|Realism]] (with its ''[[fin de siècle]]'' development, [[Naturalism (literature)|Naturalism]]).<ref>Călinescu, pg. 179; Cazimir (1967), pp. 45–46, 49, 58; Cioculescu, pp. 5, 10, 93, 96, 107–110; Vianu, Vol. I, p. 310; Vol. II, pp. 201–202, 203–204</ref> The writer, who abided by the [[classical unities]],<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 45–46</ref> rejected Romantic tenets, and, as early as the 1870s, opposed the [[lyricism]] present in the dramas of [[Victor Hugo]] and [[Friedrich Schiller]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 96, 109–110</ref> [[Neoclassicism]] in his works is further enhanced in his drama and comedies by his adherence to [[Eugène Scribe]]'s principles (''see [[Well-made play]]'').<ref name="Vianu, Vol. I, p. 310">Vianu, Vol. I, pg. 310</ref> [[Paul Zarifopol]] argued that, for most of his life, Caragiale, the opponent of [[didacticism]], advocated Maiorescu's principles of [[art for art's sake]]. He often sketched out alternative endings to his stories, and selected the ones he felt came most natural. Nevertheless, Zarifopol also noted that, late in his life, the writer contemplated adding a didactic message to one of his writings, which was to remain unfinished.<ref name="zarifintrod"/>
His role in the Romanian context was likened to those of [[Honoré de Balzac]] in [[France]], [[Charles Dickens]] in the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]], and [[Nikolai Gogol]] in the [[Russian Empire]].<ref name="zarifpubl"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 107–108; Vianu, Vol. I, pg. 310</ref> Literary critic [[Pompiliu Constantinescu]] credited Caragiale's sense of irony with having corrected the tendencies of his day, and, through this, with helping create an urban literature.<ref>Mîndra, pg. 269</ref> Caragiale's interest in Realism was however denied by some of his ''Junimist'' advocates, who attempted to link his entire work with Maiorescu's guidelines: on the basis of [[Arthur Schopenhauer's aesthetics|Schopenhauerian aesthetics]], critic [[Mihail Dragomirescu]] postulated that his humor was pure, and did not draw on any special circumstance or context.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 36–38; Cioculescu, pg. 16; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 65</ref>
Through many of his traits, Caragiale was connected to a [[Balkans|Balkan]] environment of virtually permanent human contact, with its humor condensed in [[anecdote]]s, mimicry, and witty comebacks.<ref>Călinescu, pg. 181; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 307–308; Vol. II, pg. 195</ref> Zarifopol quoted him saying that he admired the traditional forms of entertainment, and that he admired the ''soitarìi'' ("[[buffoon]]s").<ref name="zarifpubl"/><ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 46–48</ref>
Largely reflecting his primordial study of [[dramaturgy]], Caragiale's literature is indebted to dialog, as well as, in rarer cases, to [[internal monologue]] and [[free indirect speech]] (the favorite technique of Naturalists).<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, pg. 311; Vol. II, pg. 204</ref> Language takes the central role in his work, often compensating for the lack of detail.<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref>Mîndra, pg. 270; Vianu, Vol. I, pg. 311; Vol. II, pp. 203–204</ref> To this was added his tendency to reduce texts to their essence—he shortened down not only his own text, but also his occasional translations of stories by [[Elisabeth of Wied|Queen Elisabeth]] and even [[Miguel de Cervantes]] or [[Edgar Allan Poe]].<ref name="zarifintrod"/> At times, he added a lyrical, meditative or autobiographical, perspective to his works: this trait was especially obvious in his later [[fantasy]] works (''[[Kir Ianulea]]'' and ''[[Calul dracului]]'' among them), all marked by [[Neo-romanticism|Neoromantic]] inspiration.<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 205">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 205</ref> Zarifopol claimed that, although Caragiale often rejected the tendency of other writers to capitalize on [[picturesque]] images, he often used them in his own writings.<ref name="zarifintrod"/>
Caragiale arguably won as much acclaim for his rigorous approach to playwriting as for his accomplished style. With [[Alexandru Vlahuță]], [[George Coșbuc]] and others, he belonged to the first generation of Romanian authors to take a noted interest in imposing [[professionalism]].<ref>Vianu, Vol. III, pg. 14</ref> He was specific about this requirement—on one occasion, he used sarcasm to overturn a common misconception, saying: "Literature is an art that needs not be learned; whoever knows how to turn letters into syllables and the latter into words has had sufficient preparation to engage in literature."<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 205"/> Commenting on this, Vianu stressed: "[...] even under the appearance of ease, [Caragiale] lets us catch sight of the severe law of his art"<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 206</ref> (adding elsewhere that "[Caragiale] was a scrupulous and tormented artist").<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, pg. 314</ref>
Caragiale compared writers who could not dissimulate their intent and generate a good story with "a [[Strabismus|cross-eyed]] who tells you which way to go: one doesn't known if he is to go down the road he points to, or down the road he is looking at".<ref name="zarifintrod"/> Speaking in the late 1890s, he also likened writing for the stage with [[architecture]]:
<blockquote>"In truth, just as much as the architect's plan is not yet the final accomplishment of his intent—that is to say, the monument—but only its conventional recording [...], so too is the dramaturg's writing not yet the accomplishment of his intent — that is to say, the comedy — but the conventional recording, to which will be added the personal elements, in order to depict a development of human circumstances and deeds. In short: just as an architect's plan bears little resemblance to a painting, so does drama bear little resemblance to a poem."<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 187">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 187</ref></blockquote>
==Political and social vision==
===Liberalism and republicanism===
[[File:CuzaGhimpele1872.PNG|thumb|Anti-dynasty cartoon, published in ''Ghimpele'' in 1872, and illustrating the differences of opinion inside the [[Liberalism and radicalism in Romania|liberal camp]]. Left panel: [[Alexander John Cuza]] betrayed by [[Ion Brătianu]]; right panel: [[Carol I of Romania|Carol I]], supported by [[Otto von Bismarck]] and Brătianu, feeding off of [[German Empire|German]] influence and economic privilege]]
His interest in first-hand investigation of the human nature was accompanied, at least after he reached maturity, by a distaste for generous and [[Universalism|universalist]] theories.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 9; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 193–194, 196</ref> Caragiale viewed their impact on Romanian society with a critical eye. Like ''[[Junimea]]'', he was amused by the cultural legacy of [[Wallachian Revolution of 1848|1848 Wallachian revolutionaries]], and by its image in National Liberal discourse. Nevertheless, he claimed that there was a clear difference between the first generation of [[Liberalism and radicalism in Romania|liberal activists]]—[[Ion Câmpineanu]], [[Ion Heliade Rădulescu]], and [[Nicolae Bălcescu]]—and the new liberal establishment, which, as he believed, had come to cultivate [[hypocrisy]], [[demagogy]], and [[political corruption]].<ref>Ornea, pp. 202–204, 228</ref> He exemplified the latter group by citing some of its prominent members: [[Pantazi Ghica]] and [[Nicolae Misail]].<ref>Ornea, pg. 203</ref> At one point, he argued that, had they not died young, the leaders of 1848 could have found themselves best represented by the [[Conservative Party (Romania, 1880–1918)|Conservatives]].<ref>Ornea, pp. 202–203</ref> He recorded the way in which National Liberal politicians claimed to take inspiration from the revolt, and pointed out that the 1848 slogans had become rallying calls for the most banal causes.<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 167, 308–309</ref>
His almost lifelong critique of the liberal current, marked by his conflicts with [[Dimitrie Sturdza]] and [[Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu]], was partly inspired by the ''Junimea'' guidelines — in line with the ''Junimists'', Caragiale perceived liberals as agents of [[Populism]], popular Romanticism, and [[Idealism]], as tenets prevalent in the literature of his day.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 9">Cioculescu, pg. 9</ref> For Caragiale, the resulting liberal-inspired literary works were ''spanac'' ("spinach").<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 9, 264</ref> The writer thus identified late 19th-century Romanian liberalism "empty talk", and his attacks on demagogy partly mirrored Maiorescu's views about the National Liberals' "inebriation with words".<ref>Ornea, pp. 205, 211, 291</ref>
Caragiale centered some of his first attacks on the "Reds" and their leader [[C. A. Rosetti]], in whose [[republicanism]] and inflammatory rhetoric he saw the main threat to Romanian society.<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 179–180; Ornea, pp. 209–217</ref> The writer believed that, ever since having ousted [[Alexander John Cuza]] from his throne, both Rosetti and [[Ion Brătianu]] were using their republican basis as an asset, inciting to rebellion only when their demands were not met.<ref>Ornea, pp. 211–213</ref> He frequently ridiculed the cult with which Rosetti surrounded figures of international republicanism, such as [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] and [[Léon Gambetta]], and indicated that the National Liberal public had very vague and impractical notions of what a republican state actually implied.<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Ornea, pp. 210–217</ref>
The republican agitation is no longer emphasized in Caragiale's later works, as republicanism slowly faded out of the mainstream liberal discourse.<ref>Ornea, pg. 212</ref> Noting this, several critics believe that, in his ''[[O scrisoare pierdută]]'', which depicts the battle between two unnamed political camps, the dramatist alluded to the conflict between Brătianu's moderates and Rosetti's extremists (as indicated by the fact that all the main characters attend the same rallies).<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Ornea, pp. 217–218</ref> This view was disputed by Zarifopol, who argued that the more pragmatic grouping stands for the Conservatives, and the demagogic one for the National Liberals as a whole.<ref>Ornea, pg. 217</ref>
===Nationalism===
Ion Luca Caragiale was a vocal critic of [[antisemitism]], which was mostly represented by the National Liberals and [[A. C. Cuza]]'s emerging movement. At a time when the [[History of the Jews in Romania|Jewish community]] was denied [[Jewish Emancipation|emancipation]], he advocated its full integration into Romanian society, calling for [[civil rights]] to be extended to all residents of Romania. Around 1907, he tried his hand at writing a legislative proposal, according to which the Romanian state was to extend citizenship all resident [[stateless person]]s who did not enjoy foreign protection—in its manuscript form, this document was kept by his friend [[Dimitrie Gusti]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 30–31</ref> According to [[Garabet Ibrăileanu]], his rejection of antisemitic views was owed either to his failure to relate with the [[middle class]] and its anti-Jewish stances, or to his "powerful intelligence", which contrasted with the "instinctual, almost zoological nature" of the antisemitic discourse.<ref name="ibrextremacar"/>
His criticism of both the nationalist discourse and liberal-inspired education generated subjects for several of his shorter satirical writings. Caragiale thus authored a mock-pamphlet advertising the program of a new cultural society, ''[[Românii Verzi]]'' (the "Green Romanians"), who took its [[Racism|racialist]] proposals to the point of arguing that "[...] a nation must always fear other nations".<ref>Ornea, p. 224</ref> Like ''Junimea'', he was entirely opposed to the group of [[August Treboniu Laurian]] and other [[Transylvania]]n intellectuals, who attempted to reform the [[Romanian language]] by introducing new forms of speech and writing that aimed to return it closer to its [[Latin]] roots. In his stories, Caragiale created the teacher [[Marius Chicoș Rostogan]], a caricature of both the liberal educators and the Transylvanian "Latinists".<ref name="Ornea, p. 226">Ornea, p. 226</ref> While in [[Berlin]], the writer also persiflaged some of [[Vasile Alecsandri]]'s liberal and [[Patriotism|patriotic]] writings—he completed Alecsandri's nationalist poem ''Tricolorul'' with sarcastic verses that were meant to enhance its [[Xenophobia|xenophobic]] feel (showing the Romanians ready to do battle against all their perceived enemies in [[Eastern Europe]]).<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 68, 216, 252–253</ref>
Nevertheless, various authors believe that a young Caragiale did indeed support nationalist liberal policies, and presume that he was behind a series of anti-Jewish columns, published by ''[[Voința Națională]]'' during the early 1880s.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 9"/> This was for long disputed: [[rabbi]] and literary historian [[Moses Gaster]] attributed the pieces to [[Nicolae Xenopol]], while researcher [[Șerban Cioculescu]], who originally doubted them, eventually agreed that they formed an integral part of Caragiale's work.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 21"/>
===Conservatism and traditionalism===
[[File:Caragiale and Vlahuta.jpeg|thumb|Caragiale (left) and [[Alexandru Vlahuță]]]]
In some of his early articles, and again as he distanced himself from ''Junimea'', the writer showed himself to be a vocal critic of the Conservative doctrine and its ''Junimist'' representatives. This is especially evident in his 1907 essay and in some of his stories.<ref>Ornea, pp. 228–229</ref> Caragiale claimed that both [[Titu Maiorescu]] and [[Petre P. Carp]] were "[[boyar]]s" who prioritized the interest of their [[social class]] (which was by then nonetheless defunct, as traditional [[Privilege (legal ethics)|privilege]] had been formally abolished a generation earlier).<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 22–23, 29, 121, 304</ref> Cioculescu attributed this to an "[[inferiority complex]]" Caragiale felt in respect to his former patrons.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 22">Cioculescu, p. 22</ref>
Despite his brief association with the mainstream Conservatives, Caragiale was probably never their partisan, and only hoped that the party could open the way for the reforms advertised by [[George Panu]] and [[Alexandru Lahovari]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 269, 271; Ornea, pp. 206–209</ref> When disappointed with their failure to promote change, he moved on to support [[Take Ionescu]] and his dissident grouping.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 271–273; Ornea, p. 208</ref> Uniquely among students of Caragiale's work, [[George Călinescu]] argued that the writer's main interest was not in criticizing the liberals, but actually in an overall rejection of the most embedded ''Junimist'' tenets, which, in Călinescu's view, had engendered "a lack of faith in the country's own powers".<ref>Cazimir (1967), p. 54</ref> [[Paul Zarifopol]] believed that several of his ''[[Momente și schițe]]'' characters, including the effeminate high life chronicler Edgar Bostandaki, are caricatures of the Conservatives.<ref name="zarifpubl"/>
Caragiale contrasted the other major writers of his generation, including his friends Mihai Eminescu, [[Ioan Slavici]], [[Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea]], and ''[[Sămănătorul]]'' journal founder [[Alexandru Vlahuță]], all of whom were advocating a return to the rural sphere and peasant traditionalism.<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, p. 312; Vol. II, pp. 184, 199</ref> In ''[[Moftul Român]]'', he [[Parody|parodied]] the [[archaism]]s favored by Ștefănescu Delavrancea;<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 41–43; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 185</ref> during his final years, he also questioned the aesthetic value of Ștefănescu Delavrancea's medieval-themed play ''[[Apus de soare]]''.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 253</ref> Prominent nationalists and traditionalists tended to be reserved in their assessment of Caragiale's literary contributions—they include his friend Eminescu<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 6"/> and historian [[Nicolae Iorga]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 28, 305</ref>
Nonetheless, Ion Luca Caragiale was, according to Zarifopol, a passionate advocate of tradition in front of innovation, and "a defender of the well-established truths".<ref name="zarifintrod"/> [[Tudor Vianu]] also evidenced that Caragiale treasured his [[Romanian Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] identity, frequently appealing to God and the saints in both his private life and his writings.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 197">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 197</ref> According to [[Ioan Slavici]], Caragiale defined himself as "a right-believing [[Christianity|Christian]]", and disagreed with Eminescu on the nature of religion (at a time when the poet was a passionate student of [[Buddhism]]).<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 197"/> Cioculescu called this trait "primitive religiosity".<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 7">Cioculescu, pg. 7</ref> The writer is also known to have convinced that [[luck]] and [[destiny]] manifested themselves in life,<ref>Călinescu, pg. 180; Cioculescu, pg. 7; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 204</ref> and his ''[[Cănuță om sucit]]'', a short story about a proverbially unlucky fellow, is thought to have referred to its author.<ref>Călinescu, pg. 180; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 204</ref> His [[superstition]]s were accompanied by a series of [[phobia]]s, particularly [[pyrophobia]] and [[nosophobia]].<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 7"/>
===Caragiale and the modernists===
Ion Luca Caragiale was mostly critical of literary experiments and the newer stages of [[Modernism]]. On this basis, he persistently ridiculed [[Alexandru Macedonski]]'s style, especially after the latter adopted [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]]. Much of his own poetry, especially pieces published in ''Moftul Român'' after 1901, parodied the [[Symbolist movement in Romania|Romanian Symbolist clubs]] and the [[Parnassianism]] of Macedonski's ''Literatorul''<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 63–64, 67, 134</ref> (among the best-known of these targets was poet [[Cincinat Pavelescu]], who was coeditor at ''Literatorul'').<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 134</ref>
As editor of ''[[Epoca (Romania)|Epoca]]'''s literary supplement, Caragiale refused to publish a descriptive poem by the young [[Gala Galaction]], claiming that it was not poetry (when [[Nicolae Filipescu]] asked him to reconsider, he threatened to quit).<ref>Vianu, Vol. III, pg. 281</ref> Late in his life, he reserved explicit criticism for the new generation of Symbolists, whose work, he argued, belonged to "the church" of [[Belgium|Belgian]] poet [[Maurice Maeterlinck]].<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 67</ref> Zarifopol also noted that, for as long as he lived, the writer derided the innovative works of [[Henrik Ibsen]] and [[August Strindberg]], but pointed out that Caragiale had never actually read or seen their plays.<ref name="zarifintrod"/>
Nevertheless, Caragiale was not entirely opposed to newer trends in poetry and art. Literary critic [[Matei Călinescu]] believes that he genuinely admired ''În orașul cu trei sute de biserici'' ("In the City with Three Hundred Churches"), a [[free verse]] poem by the Symbolist [[Ion Minulescu]].<ref name="mateicalinescu">[[Matei Călinescu]], "Prefață", in [[Ion Minulescu]], ''Romanțe pentru mai târziu și alte poezii'', [[Editura pentru literatură]], Bucharest, 1967, pg. XIV; {{OCLC|6434366}}</ref> This work is believed to have inspired a 1908 parody by Caragiale, in which the writer proclaimed his support for Take Ionescu.<ref name="mateicalinescu"/><ref>Cioculescu, pg. 66</ref> According to poet and essayist [[Tudor Arghezi]], Caragiale also admired the works of [[Ștefan Luchian]], a [[Postimpressionism|Postimpressionist]] whose paintings were often exhibited in Bucharest galleries.<ref>[[Tudor Arghezi]], ''Scrieri. Proze'', [[Editura Minerva]], Bucharest, 1985, pg. 621; {{OCLC|32599658}}</ref>
===Caragiale and the Left===
Moving toward the [[Left-wing politics|Left]] during the final decades of his life, the writer maintained connection with the [[Socialism|socialists]], but was nonetheless ambivalent to their goals. As Cioculescu noted, he welcomed the Bucharest celebration of [[May Day]] in one of his ''[[Moftul Român]]'' pieces,<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 22"/> and probably agreed to lecture for the Workers' Club in the capital.<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref name="Cioculescu, p. 22"/> Some of his writings were hosted by the socialist journal ''[[România Muncitoare]]''.<ref>Mîndra, p. 11</ref> According to [[Garabet Ibrăileanu]], himself a socialist at the time, "sometime after 1890, Caragiale briefly flirted with socialism."<ref name="ibrextremacar"/>
However, over the same period, Caragiale ridiculed several socialist militants, referring to one of their leaders with the derisive nickname ''Edgard Spanachidi'' (itself a derivative of "spinach").<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 22, 64</ref> Instead, his loose association with [[George Panu]] signified a return to [[Radicalism (historical)|radicalism]], and saw him campaigning in favor of [[universal suffrage]] and a complete [[land reform]]<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 23, 46–47; Ornea, pp. 208–209</ref>—this clashed with the views he had expressed earlier in life, and Caragiale was careful not to let it seem that he had returned to the "Red" liberalism of his youth.<ref>Ornea, p. 209</ref>
In one of his articles, Ion Luca Caragiale commented with irony on the [[Marxism|Marxist]] views of his friend [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]]: he compared the latter's way of dining on a leg of veal, laboriously carving it into sections, to his philosophical approach. Caragiale thus noted that [[philosophical skepticism]] was equivalent to stripping the bone of its flesh piece by piece, and then throwing it to the dogs—without having been able to fully document the leg of veal or its substance.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, p. 194</ref> Nevertheless, as Tudor Vianu indicated, although Caragiale preferred observation and spontaneity to speculation, he was not averse to pure philosophical analysis, and frequently quoted the [[classics]] in defense of his aesthetic guidelines.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 194–195</ref> Late in his life, Caragiale also sparked debates after deriding the emerging [[Poporanism]], a school of thought which took its inspiration from socialism, [[agrarianism]] and traditionalism.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 43, 67</ref> He is also known to have been amused by the [[1907 German federal election|German election of 1907]] and the resulting defeat registered by the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party]].<ref>Cioculescu, p. 271</ref>
Caragiale maintained a friendship with Dobrogeanu-Gherea for much of his life. He was especially interested in news of Dobrogeanu-Gherea having become involved in the 1905 [[Russian battleship Potemkin]] scandal, after the aging socialist decided to offer his help to the refugee sailors as they arrived in [[Constanța]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 243–246</ref> During his time in [[Berlin]], he repeatedly tried to convince the Dobrogeanu-Ghereas to leave their home in Romania and join him abroad.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 240</ref> Nonetheless, he criticized the philosopher when the latter refused to be decorated by [[King of Romania|King]] [[Carol I of Romania|Carol I]] (1909).<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 245–246</ref> Around 1907, the dramatist was also interested in the activities of [[Christian Rakovsky]], who was trying to make his way back into Romania, and closely followed news of street clashes between his supporters and the authorities.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 246–248</ref>
==Settings==
[[File:Sinaia Prahova old pic.jpg|thumb|Early 20th century panorama of [[Sinaia]]]]
The writer had an unprecedented familiarity with the social environments, traits, opinions, manners of speech, means of expression and lifestyle choices of his day — from the rural atmosphere of his early childhood, going through his vast experience as a journalist, to the high spheres of politics ([[National Liberal Party (Romania, 1875)|National Liberal]] as well as [[Conservative Party (Romania, 1880–1918)|Conservative]], ''Junimist'' as well as socialist).<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 6, 7–8; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 193</ref> An incessant traveler, Caragiale carefully investigated everyday life in most areas of the [[Romanian Old Kingdom]] and Transylvania.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 193</ref> He was an unusually sociable man:<ref name="zarifpubl"/><ref>Cioculescu, pg. 118</ref> in one of his letters from [[Berlin]], he asked Alceu Urechia to send his regards to over 40 of his acquaintances in [[Sinaia]] (from [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] diplomats to street vendors or beggars).<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 118–119</ref>
Several of his major works have a rural setting—they include ''[[Năpasta]]'', ''[[În vreme de război]]'', ''[[La hanul lui Mânjoală]]'', ''[[Calul dracului]]'', ''[[Păcat]]'', and ''[[O făclie de Paște]]'', as well as fragments of the pseudo-[[fairy tale]]s he authored late in life.<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 312, 313–314; Vol. II, pp. 198, 205</ref> Nevertheless, Caragiale is foremost known and acclaimed for his urban themes, which form the background to the vast majority of his most accomplished writings.<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Ornea, pp. 64, 221–223, 229; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 312–313; Vol. II, pp. 198–200</ref>
The author depicted the city in all stages of its development and in all its atmospheres — from nightlife to ''Căldură mare'''s midday torpor, from noisy [[slum]]s and the ''Târgul Moșilor'' fête in [[Obor]] to the [[England|English]]-inspired [[tea party (social gathering)|tea parties]] of the urban elite.<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Ornea, pp. 221–223; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 199–200</ref> This large fresco drew comparisons with his generation colleague [[Ion Creangă]], who was argued to have done the same for the countryside.<ref>Ornea, pg. 229</ref> Caragiale was especially proud of the opening paragraph in his ''Ultima emisiune...'' story, part of ''[[Momente și schițe]]'', which, he believed, the "corner of a slum" was suggested to perfection.<ref>Cioculescu, pg. 71</ref>
[[Tudor Vianu]] also noted that, among cities and towns, Caragiale preferred Bucharest and those provincial centers most exposed to [[Central Europe]]an influences (specifically, the summer retreats in the [[Prahova Valley]] and other Wallachian stations on the way to Transylvania).<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 199">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 199</ref> The enclosed world of the [[Căile Ferate Române|Romanian Railways]] also appealed to the writer, and an impressive number of his sketches relate to it in various ways.<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 199"/>
==Collective characters==
[[File:Sava Hentia - Targul Mosilor.jpg|thumb|''Târgul Moșilor'', the [[fair]] in [[Obor]] (late 19th-century painting by [[Sava Henția]])]]
Confessing at some point that "the world was my school", Caragiale dissimulated his background and critical eye as a means to blend into each environment he encountered, and even adopted the manners and speech patterns he later recorded in his literary work.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 6–7; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 195</ref> He thus encouraged familiarity, allowing people to reveal their histories, motivations, and culture.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 195"/> Vianu recounted: "The man was a consummate actor and a ''[[Deadpan|pince-sans-rire]]'', an ironist [...] to the point where his partners of dialog were never sure if they were spoken to 'seriously' [...]."<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 196">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 196</ref> In one of his pieces from 1899, he welcomed the famous actors [[Eleonora Duse]] and [[Jean Mounet-Sully]] to Bucharest, imitating the exaggerated style of other theater chroniclers—the article ended with Caragiale confessing that he had not actually seen the two perform.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 196"/> In one other instance, as a means to comment on [[plagiarism]], the author also parodied his own ''O făclie de Paște''—which he turned into the sketch, ''Noaptea Învierii''.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 205"/>
In ''1907, din primăvară până în toamnă'', his late and disillusioned work, Caragiale lashed out at the traditional class of political clients, with an indictment which, Tudor Vianu believed, also served to identify the main focus of his other writings:
<blockquote>"plebs incapable of work and lacking employment, impoverished suburban small traders and street vendors, petty dangerous agitators of the villages and of the areas adjacent to towns, bullying election agents; and then the hybrid product of all levels of schooling, semi-cultured intellectuals, lawyers and lawyerlings, professors, teachers and teacherlings, semi-illiterate and unfrocked priests, illiterate schoolteachers—all of them beer garden theorists; next come the great functionaries and the little clerks, most of them removable from office."<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, p. 190</ref></blockquote>
Direct criticism was nonetheless rare in Caragiale's fiction: Vianu believed to have found traces of it in ''[[O scrisoare pierdută]]'' ("the most cruel [of his satires]") and in ''[[Grand Hotel "Victoria română"]]'' ("the most bitter").<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 201">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 201</ref> On several occasions, Caragiale showed or even defined himself as a sentimental, and his modesty was acknowledged by several of his friends.<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, p. 314; Vol. II, pp. 197–198; Vol. III, pp. 74, 75–76</ref> Vianu noted that, alongside his Christian [[ethos]], this contributed to his distant, calm and often sympathetic overall take on society.<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, p. 314; Vol. II, pp. 200–201</ref> In his words:
<blockquote>"A wave of charm, of reconciliation with life passes above all [his characters], one which, if it only assumes light and superficial shapes, experienced by naive people with harmless manias, is a sign that the collective existence is taking place in shelter from the great trials."<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, p. 200</ref></blockquote>
In contrast with this, [[Poporanism|Poporanist]] critic [[Garabet Ibrăileanu]] argued that Caragiale actually hated the people who inspired his works, and claimed that the writer had made this clear during one of their conversations.<ref name="Cazimir 1967, p. 44">Cazimir (1967), p. 44</ref> His account was considered doubtful by researcher [[Ștefan Cazimir]], who believed that Ibrăileanu was using it to back a polemic and singular overview of Caragiale's work.<ref name="Cazimir 1967, p. 44"/>
According to Vianu, there is a manifest difference between Ion Luca Caragiale's comedies and his ''[[Momente și schițe]]'': the former are, in his view, driven by situations and circumstances, whereas the latter sees Caragiale developing his original perspective to its fullest.<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 309–310; Vol. II, pp. 200–201</ref> This, he argues, was determined by important social changes—a move from a traditional world—awkwardly attempting to digest [[Westernization]], [[modernization]], and [[Francization|Francized]] culture—, to a more stable and prosperous environment.<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 309–310; Vol. II, p. 200</ref> A similar division was applied by Ibrăileanu.<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Ornea, p. 221</ref>
==Types==
===Theoretical aspects===
The form of [[Literary realism|Realism]] favored by Caragiale placed types of characters at the center of literary creativity, owing to the influence of [[Classicism]].<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 201"/> Several critics have credited ''Momente și schițe'', as well as all his dramas, with providing some of the first truly believable portrayals in local literature.<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref>Mîndra, pp. 269–270</ref> Vianu stressed that Classicist borrowings in Caragiale's writings were limited, indicating that Caragiale parted with the notion of "generic types" to look for the "social" ones.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 201"/> In parallel, literary critic [[George Călinescu]] argued that "[t]he typological structure is present in Caragiale's work as a supporting structure, without being essential."<ref>Călinescu, p. 183</ref>
In Vianu's assessment, the universal human nature was important to Caragiale, but not made instantly obvious (as opposed to the immediate importance his characters were meant to have in the eyes of his public).<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 201–202</ref> Vianu illustrated this concept after investigating the manner in which Caragiale completed his ''O scrisoare pierdută'': the author was for long undecided about which character was to win the electoral battle on which the play centers, but opted for Agamiță Dandanache, the senile [[Radicalism (historical)|radical]], because his victory was to give the play more depth.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 202">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 202</ref> Caragiale was thus quoted saying that Dandanache was "more stupid" than the clueless politician Tache Farfuridi, and "more of a scoundrel" than the unprincipled and cunning journalist Nae Cațavencu.<ref>Cazimir (1967), p. 143; Ornea, p. 221; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 202</ref>
In Vianu's view, ''Momente și schițe'' was more vague in this respect, giving little insight into morals and states of mind, whereas the other, longer, novellas did depict feelings and occasionally provided additional details such as [[physiology]] or [[cenesthesia]].<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 202"/> Also according to Vianu, Ion Luca Caragiale, unlike the Naturalists, was generally not interested in offering the reader access to his characters' [[Psychology|psychological]] background—aside from his ''[[Năpasta]]'' and ''[[Păcat]]'', and ''[[O făclie de Paște]]'', he only adopted the psychological technique in satirical contexts, as a means to parody its use.<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, p. 312</ref> A similar view was expressed by Vianu's predecessor, [[Silvian Iosifescu]], who also stressed that Caragiale always avoided applying the Naturalist technique to its fullest,<ref name="Mîndra, p. 271">Mîndra, p. 271</ref> while George Călinescu himself believed that the characters' motivations in ''O făclie de Paște'' are actually physiological and [[Ethnology|ethnological]].<ref name="Călinescu, p. 179">Călinescu, p. 179</ref>
Maiorescu was especially fond of the way in which Caragiale balanced his personal perspective and the generic traits he emphasized: speaking of Leiba Zibal, the [[History of the Jews in Romania|Jewish]] character in ''O făclie de Paște'' who defends himself out of fear, he drew a comparison with Shakespeare's [[Shylock]]. He thus noted that, for all the differences in style between the two authors, both their characters stood for the Jewish people as a whole.<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref>Ornea, p. 50</ref> This assessment was backed by Maiorescu's adversary, [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]].<ref name="dbrghestmet"/> George Călinescu also believed that, aside from his individual nature, Zibal provided readers with an accurate insight into Jewish reactions to systemic persecution and death threats.<ref name="Călinescu, p. 179"/> Such assessments were rejected by [[Paul Zarifopol]], who opposed generalizations and commented that the work only referred to "[t]he ingenious cruelty of a man maddened by fear".<ref name="zarifintrod"/>
===Allegories===
One of Caragiale's main and earliest types is that of the young man gripped by love, expressing himself through emphatic and Romantic clichés—its main representative is ''[[O noapte furtunoasă]]'''s Rică Venturiano. As Vianu commented, Caragiale exploited the theme to so much success that it took another generation for youthful love to be presented in a non-comedic context (with the common signature writings of [[Ștefan Octavian Iosif]] and [[Dimitrie Anghel]]).<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 454–455</ref> At the other end are [[Patriarchy|patriarchal]] figures, heads of families who seem unable or unwilling to investigate their wives' [[Adultery|adulterous]] relations with younger men.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 55–56; Cioculescu, pp. 56–59, 83–84, 85–88, 113</ref> This behavior is notably present in ''O noapte furtunoasă'', where the aged Dumitrache fails to note even the most obvious signs that his wife Veta is in love with his good friend Chiriac.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 55, 112–119; Cioculescu, pp. 83–84</ref> A more complex situation is present in ''O scrisoare pierdută'', where political boss Trahanache cannot tell that his wife Joițica is having an affair with Tipătescu, and, when confronted with the evidence, is more interested in proving that she is not.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 55, 133–134; Cioculescu, pp. 85–88</ref>
With Venturiano, Caragiale also introduces criticism of the liberal journalist and lawyers. A law school student, Venturiano contributes long and exaggerated articles to the republican press, which recall those authored by [[C. A. Rosetti]] and his collaborators.<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Cioculescu, pp. 179–180, 183–184; Ornea, pp. 210–211</ref> A more elaborate such character is Nae Cațavencu, who plays a major part in ''O scrisoare pierdută'', and who, using a "Red" discourse, attacks politicians on all sides with turbulent remarks and recourse to [[blackmail]].<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Ornea, pp. 217–221</ref> He profits from the more moderate attitudes of his adversaries to proclaim himself a [[Progressivism|progressive]] politician, and he is successful in doing so—Cațavencu rallies around him a group of teachers and other state employees.<ref>Ornea, pp. 217–219</ref> The only person who is able to stop his rise is Agamiță Dandanache, an old [[Wallachian Revolution of 1848|1848 revolutionary]]. Danadanche, shown to have been sidelined from politics, makes a comeback at a time when the factions needs his inoffensive presence as a third-party, and, although senile, has a vast experience in blackmailing.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 143–144; Ornea, pp. 220–221</ref> [[Ștefan Cazimir]] linked Dandanache to a new [[aristocracy]], created around the first generation of Romanian liberals, and likened him to a [[Hidalgo (Spanish nobility)|hidalgo]].<ref>Cazimir (1967), p. 144</ref> Tache Farfuridi, a competitor to both, has been described by Cazimir as a conformist self-seeker, in the manner of [[M. and Mme. Joseph Prudhomme|M. Joseph Prudhomme]], a character made famous by [[Henri Monnier]]'s prose.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 136–137</ref>
Written between the two other comedies, ''[[Conu Leonida față cu reacțiunea]]'' depicts the long-term effects of republican discourse on its fascinated audience, through the sayings and actions of Leonida. The latter, whose source of income is a state [[pension]], notably supports the notion that the "Red" republic will provide each clerk with a salary, a pension, as well as a [[debt moratorium]]<ref>Cioculescu, p. 334; Ornea, p. 215</ref>—[[Șerban Cioculescu]] noted that this request had already been voiced in real life, and issued as a political program by an obscure [[Utopian socialism|Utopian socialist]] named Pițurcă.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 334</ref> Eventually, Leonida is convinced that revolution cannot be on the rise, since the authorities have banned the firing of weapons within city limits.<ref>Cazimir (1967), p. 129; Cioculescu, p. 337</ref> Similar fallacies are uttered by one of the secondary characters in ''[[D-ale carnavalului]]'', known to the other protagonists as ''Catindatul'', who has a vague familiarity with both [[Subjective idealism|subjective idealist]] and [[Materialism|materialist]] tenets, the sources for his absurd theories about [[suggestibility]] and "magnetism"—two processes in which he sees the universal source for all discomfort or disease.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 155–157</ref> In parallel, Zarifopol argued, the writer had even allowed ironic reflections on the impact of various theories to seep into a more serious work, ''O făclie de Paște'', where two students terrify the innkeeper Zibal by casually discussing [[anthropological criminology]].<ref name="zarifintrod"/>
Several other of Caragiale's characters have traditionally been considered [[Allegory|allegories]] of [[social class]]es and even regional identities. One of the most famous ones is [[Mitică]], a recurring character who stands for ordinary [[Bucharest]]ers, [[Wallachia]]ns or [[Muntenia]]ns in general.<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref name="Călinescu, p. 181"/> A [[Hypocrisy|hypocritical]] and seemingly superficial man, Mitică expresses himself through either platitudes or clichés he believes are clever,<ref name="danmanuca"/> and, illustrating a tendency Caragiale first recorded in his ''[[Moftul Român]]'', quickly dismisses all important things he is confronted with.<ref name="Călinescu, p. 181"/> Similarly, the teacher [[Marius Chicoș Rostogan]], who is present or named in several sketches, stands for those [[Transylvania]]n expatriates in Romania whose sympathies went to the liberal current.<ref name="Ornea, p. 226"/> His discourse, through which Caragiale sarcastically illustrates liberal tenets in respect to [[Education in Romania|Romanian education]], is centered on a disregard for content and a rigor for memorizing irrelevant details.<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref name="Ornea, p. 226"/> It has been proposed that Rostogan is at least partly based on Vasile Grigore Borgovan, a Transylvanian-born educator and resident of [[Drobeta-Turnu Severin|Turnu Severin]].<ref>Cioculescu, p. 254</ref>
''Cetățeanul turmentat'', an unnamed inebriated man who makes brief but relevant appearances in ''O scrisoare pierdută'', is thought to symbolize simple townsfolk, utterly confused by the political battle going on around them, and ignored by all the notabilities.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 80; Vianu, Vol. I, p. 309; Vol. II, p. 201</ref> Like his counterpart, the police agent Ghiță Pristanda, the inebriated elector has no relevant personal ambition,<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 143–149</ref> and stands for the so-called "government dowry"—people afraid of losing their offices, and ready to back whoever is in power.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 80–81</ref> According to Călinescu, the inebriated citizen worships authority as a "supreme god", despite all its absurdities.<ref>Cazimir (1967), p. 55</ref> He repeatedly claims to have served Trahanache during [[Alexander John Cuza]]'s ousting, but his supposed patron only acknowledges him once, when asking party members to "escort this honorable person outside".<ref>Cazimir (1967), p. 146</ref>
In a number of his short stories and sketches, Caragiale makes use of another particularly ''Junimist'' theme, and investigates the glamorous but superficial impact of [[modernization]] on [[upper class|high society]].<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Ornea, pp. 222–224</ref> In one sketch, a couple of ladies dine in an opulent salon, while cursing their maid, gossiping, and showing interest in vulgar subjects.<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Ornea, pp. 222–223</ref> The characters in these writings tend to resemble each other, evidencing the generic traits of the well-to-do.<ref>Ornea, p. 223</ref>
===Other traits and characters===
[[Anxiety|Anxieties]] take the central stage in several of Caragiale's writings. From early on, Caragiale's minute analysis of mounting terror in ''O făclie de Paște'' won the praise of [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]].<ref>Mîndra, p. 267</ref> In several of his sketches and stories, characters are driven to despair by their inability to cope with real or presumed changes in their environment.<ref name="holbanemigr"/><ref name="Cioculescu, p. 89">Cioculescu, p. 89</ref> This is shown to have happened to characters such as Leiba Zibal, Stavrache—the pub owner in ''[[În vreme de război]]''—, as well as Anghelache (the suicide victim in ''Inspecțiune...'', part of ''[[Momente și schițe]]'').<ref>Călinescu, p. 180; Cioculescu, p. 89</ref> Șerban Cioculescu referred to the latter three as "great [[Neurosis|neurotics]]",<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 89"/> while Iosifescu defined Zibal and Stavrache as "[[Dementia|demented]]".<ref name="Mîndra, p. 271"/> Among the group of insane characters in Caragiale's work, Călinescu counted those of sketches and stories like ''1 Aprilie'' ("1st of April"), where an [[April Fools' Day|April Fool]] ends with a murder, and ''[[Două loturi]]'', where the clerk Lefter Popescu goes through the tribulations of having lost his winning ticket.<ref>Călinescu, pp. 179–180; Cazimir (1967), p. 56</ref>
Anxiety over imminent events grips the main characters in ''Conu Leonida față cu reacțiunea'', and plays a part in female behavior as depicted in all his other comedies.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 83–88, 89–92</ref> A special kind of fear animates the main protagonists of ''D-ale carnavalului'', whose jealousy leads them to act irrationally.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 149–157; Cioculescu, pp. 89–92</ref> Thus, Iancu Pampon, an assistant-barber and former police officer, and his female counterpart, the republican suburbanite Mița Baston, are determined to uncover their partners' amorous escapades, and their hectic inquiry combines real clues with figments of imagination, fits of passionate rage with moments of sad meditation, and violent threats with periods of resignation.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 149–155</ref> Glimpses into this type of behavior have been noted in other plays by Caragiale: Cazimir placed emphasis on the fact that Farfuridi is shown to be extremely cautious towards all unplanned changes, and consumes much of his energy in preserving a largely pointless daily routine.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 137–138</ref>
Many of Caragiale's writings reproduce discussions between clerks on their time off, which usually take the shape of generic and awkward forays into culture or politics. Several of the characters in his sketches spuriously claim to be personal friends of major political figures of the day, or to have access to the back-rooms of politics and journalism.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 113, 114</ref> Although often alarmed by political or social developments, they tend to accommodate them quickly, and often encourage each other during very long stays at the [[beer garden]].<ref>Ornea, pp. 223–224</ref> Gravitating in this environment are the petty journalists, who boast access to unlikely [[Scoop (term)|scoops]], such as [[Bulgaria]] having decided to invade Romania.<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref name="Cioculescu, p. 114">Cioculescu, p. 114</ref> In one instance, Caragiale invents Caracudi, a newspaperman who writes his [[Sensationalism|sensationalist]] articles while relaxing in the park.<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 114"/>
Caragiale's [[persona]] is placed in numerous of his works. Aside from deduced self-portraits in ''[[Cănuță om sucit]]'' and elsewhere, he created the famous background character Nenea Iancu ("Uncle Iancu"), building on his colloquial name and his status as a regular client of the beer gardens.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, p. 204</ref> He introduces several of his ''Momente și schițe'' characters as personal friends, and garnishes the stories with intimate details.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 56–57</ref> Late in his life, he even confessed that the affair involving Venturiano, Dumitrache, and Dumitrache's wife Veta was partly based on an amorous misadventure he experienced as a young man.<ref>Cioculescu, p. 279</ref>
==Literary influences==
[[File:Daumier - Honest people.jpg|thumb|''We are all honest people, let's embrace one another, and let this be over with'', 1834 print by [[Honoré Daumier]]]]
Aside from the many authors whose works he quoted, translated or [[Parody|parodied]], Ion Luca Caragiale built on a vast literary legacy. According to literary historian Ștefan Cazimir: "No writer ever had as large a number of precursors [as Caragiale], just as no other artistic synthesis was ever more organic and more spontaneous."<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 63–64</ref>
A man of the theater first and foremost, Caragiale was well-acquainted with the work of his predecessors, from [[William Shakespeare]] to the [[Romanticism|Romantics]], and heavily impressed by the French ''[[comédie en vaudeville]]''.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. I, p. 310"/> He applied the notion of [[well-made play]]s, as theorized by [[Eugène Scribe]], and was also influenced by the [[dramaturgy]] of [[Eugène Marin Labiche]] and [[Victorien Sardou]].<ref name="danmanuca"/><ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 96–101; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 310–311, 314</ref> Reportedly, Labiche was his favorite author.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pg. 98</ref>
The writer himself cited [[Cilibi Moise]], a [[History of the Jews in Romania|Wallachian Jewish]] [[peddler]] and [[Aphorism|aphorist]], as an early influence, recalling how, as a child, he used to read his [[one-liner joke]]s, and treasured them as exceptional samples of concise humor.<ref name="Cazimir 1967, p. 62">Cazimir (1967), pg. 62</ref> He was similarly impressed by the works of Moise's contemporary, the prolific author [[Anton Pann]], whose accomplishments he praised during talks with his fellow ''[[Convorbiri Critice]]'' contributors,<ref name="Cazimir 1967, p. 62"/> and whose work served as a source for at least one of his own stories.<ref name="zarifintrod"/> [[Nicolae Filimon]], whom Caragiale praised on several occasions, was the author of short stories which several authors have identified as less accomplished versions of Rică Venturiano. A similar connection has been traced between the various sketches authored by [[Ion Heliade Rădulescu]], in which Transylvanian writers are the object of ridicule, and Caragiale's character, [[Marius Chicoș Rostogan]]. Caragiale's late admiration for [[Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu]] was also linked to affinities in comedic styles,<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 82–89</ref> as was his companionship with [[Iacob Negruzzi]] (himself the author of sarcastic pieces ridiculing the liberal politicians and lawyers).<ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 89–93; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 88</ref>
Caragiale is believed to have used and developed several themes already present in Romanian theatre. One such precursor is the author of comedies Teodor Myller, especially through his play ''Fata lui Chir Troancă'' ("Kir Troancă's Daughter").<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 181–182</ref> The writer was most likely very familiar with the comedies authored by his two uncles, [[Costache Caragiale|Costache and Iorgu Caragiale]], which have been shown to develop themes he later explored in depth. Among the minor 19th century dramatists whose comedic works were familiar to Caragiale, and in many ways similar to his, own was Costache Halepliu.<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 73–76, 79</ref> Another often-cited influence is his predecessor and adversary [[Vasile Alecsandri]], whose ''[[Coana Chirița]]'' plays are an early critique of [[Westernization]].<ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 70–72</ref> The two authors nonetheless differ in many ways, with Caragiale assuming a more complex role, and observing a more complex society.<ref name="antohi"/><ref name="zarifintrod"/><ref name="ibrextremacar"/><ref>Cazimir (1967), pg. 72; Mîndra, pg. 32</ref>
Ion Luca Caragiale is known to have been amused by the [[stock character]] [[Robert Macaire]], at a time when the latter had been turned into a comedic character by [[Frédérick Lemaître]].<ref>Cazimir (1967), pp. 102–103</ref> While in [[Berlin]], he purchased the cartoons of French artists [[Honoré Daumier]] and [[Paul Gavarni]] (although it is not known if their separate portrayals of Macaire were familiar to him)<ref name="Cazimir 1967, p. 103-105">Cazimir (1967), pp. 103–105</ref> — among these drawings was one showing notabilities embracing one another while picking each other's pockets, which shows similarities with Caragiale's own take on society. According to Cazimir, it is possible that he knew Daumier's work from early on, as several other subjects caricatured by the French artist bear a remarkable resemblance to his texts.<ref name="Cazimir 1967, p. 103-105"/>
Ion Luca Caragiale was also keenly aware and receptive of his contemporaries' works and of ''[[fin de siècle]]'' innovations. The literary creations of [[Émile Zola]] were a noted source of inspiration, and the parallel led [[George Călinescu]] to propose him and [[Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea]] as the main representatives of Zola's style in local literature.<ref name="Călinescu, p. 179"/> At the same time, [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]] believed that both ''[[Năpasta]]'' and ''[[O făclie de Paște]]'' showed the "obvious enough influence" of [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]].<ref>{{in lang|ro}} [[Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea]], [http://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Dl_Panu_asupra_criticii_%C5%9Fi_literaturii ''Dl Panu asupra criticii și literaturii''] (wikisource)</ref> Late in his life, Caragiale discovered the literature of [[Anatole France]] — according to [[Paul Zarifopol]], France's [[Humanism|Humanist]] themes served as a model for some of Caragiale's [[Fantasy literature|fantasy]] writings.<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 195"/><ref name="zarifintrod"/>
Discussing the latter works, Vianu noted that they reminded one of [[Shakespeare's late romances]],<ref name="Vianu, Vol. II, p. 205"/> while [[Șerban Cioculescu]] believed them to have been indirectly inspired by the works of [[Edgar Allan Poe]].<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 38"/> In his report for the academy, [[Dimitrie C. Ollănescu-Ascanio]] also drew a parallel between Poe's works and ''[[La hanul lui Mânjoală]]'', but this hypothesis was rejected by Zarifopol.<ref name="zarifintrod"/> In addition, ''[[Kir Ianulea]]'', partly using [[Niccolò Machiavelli]]'s novel as a source, was held as evidence of Caragiale's interest in [[Renaissance literature]].<ref>Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 313–14.</ref>
==Cultural legacy==
The writer's investigations into [[Culture of Romania|Romanian culture]] also resulted in an accurate record of the [[Romanian language]] as it was spoken during his day, sampling [[Romanian dialects|dialects]], [[jargon]], [[slang]], verbal [[tic]]s, as well as illustrating the experiments undertaken by conflicting schools of [[linguistics]] during the 19th and early 20th century, as well as the traces they left on the [[Romanian lexis]].<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 203–204, 240–241; Vol. III, p. 246</ref> In [[Tudor Vianu]]'s opinion, this was partly owed to his keen musical ear.<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, p. 203</ref>
Caragiale was an enduring influence on both [[Romanian humor]] and the views Romanians take of themselves.<ref name="boiaborderland">[[Lucian Boia]], ''Romania: Borderland of Europe'', Reaktion Books, London, 2001, p. 247. {{ISBN|1-86189-103-2}}</ref> His comedies and various stories have produced a series of [[catchphrase]]s, many of which are still present in both cultural reference. Nevertheless, his uncomfortable criticism has occasionally seen him assigned a secondary place in the [[Education in Romania|Romanian curriculum]] and the academic discourse, a tendency notably endorsed by the [[Iron Guard]] and the [[Communist Romania|Socialist Republic of Romania]].<ref name="antohi"/>
In parallel, Caragiale's techniques have influenced 20th century dramatists such as [[Mihail Sorbul]], [[Victor Ion Popa]], [[Mihail Sebastian]], and [[George Mihail Zamfirescu]],<ref>Mîndra, p. 33</ref> and various directors, beginning with [[Constantin I. Nottara]] and [[Paul Gusti]].<ref name="Cioculescu, p. 323"/> Several of his theatrical writings have been the subject of essays authored by director [[Sică Alexandrescu]], whose interpretation of the texts made use of the [[Stanislavsky System]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 325–342</ref> Caragiale's short stories and novellas have inspired authors such as [[Ioan A. Bassarabescu]], [[Gheorghe Brăescu]], [[Ioan Alexandru Brătescu-Voinești]], [[Dumitru D. Pătrășcanu]], [[I. Peltz]],<ref>Cioculescu, p. 172</ref> and, in later decades, [[Radu Cosașu]], [[Ioan Lăcustă]], [[Horia Gârbea]] and [[Dumitru Radu Popa]].<ref>Cristea-Enache, chapters "Filo-logia şi alte iubiri", "Dumitru Radu Popa. American Dream", "Mircea Cărtărescu. Levantul pe orizontală", "Ioan Lăcustă. Un prozator profund", "Horia Gârbea. Un computer cu talent"</ref> According to various authors, Caragiale was also a predecessor of [[Theater of the Absurd|Absurdism]],<ref name="holbanemigr"/><ref name="danmanuca"/><ref name="boiaborderland"/> and he is known to have been cited as an influence by the Absurdist dramatist [[Eugène Ionesco]].<ref name="holbanemigr"/> Outside Romania, the impact of Ion Luca Caragiale's literature was much reduced—the 1996 ''Cambridge Paperback Guide to Theatre'' attributed this to the technical problems posed by translations, as well as to the tendency of staging his works as [[period piece]]s.<ref>Sarah Stanton, Martin Banham, ''The Cambridge Paperback Guide to Theatre'', [[Cambridge University Press]], Cambridge, 1996, p. 56. {{ISBN|0-521-44654-6}}</ref> It was not until 2019 that one of his plays - A Lost Letter - was performed in English. The translation used on that occasion, at the Romanian Cultural Institute in London, is available here: https://www.pdf2html5.com/pdfupload/server/php/uploads/admin_oxffauqbza/lost-letter-2019/complete.php
Several authors have left memoirs of Ion Luca Caragiale. They include [[Octavian Goga]] and [[Ioan Slavici]],<ref>Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 178, 197; Vol. III, pp. 75, 137</ref> I. Suchianu, [[Luca Caragiale]], Ecaterina Logadi-Caragiale,<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 28, 70–71, 111, 121–122, 367, 368; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 184, 195</ref> and [[Cincinat Pavelescu]].<ref name="cpavelescu"/> Among his later biographers was [[Octav Minar]], who stood accused of having forged certain details for commercial gain.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 314, 315</ref> Direct or covert depictions of Caragiale are also present in several fiction works, starting with a [[revue]] first shown during his lifetime,<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 321–323</ref> and including novels by Goga, Slavici, [[N. Petrașcu]], [[Emanoil Bucuța]], [[Eugen Lovinescu]], [[Constantin Stere]], as well as a play by [[Camil Petrescu]].<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 43, 198, 277, 316</ref> In 1939, [[B. Jordan]] and [[Lucian Predescu]], published a common signature novel on the writer, which was criticized for its style, tone, and inaccuracies.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 312–316</ref> The short story writer Brătescu-Voinești proposed that Ion Luca Caragiale's love affair with [[Veronica Micle]] and Eminescu's anger provide the key to Eminescu's poem ''[[Luceafărul (poem)|Luceafărul]]'', but his theory remains controversial.<ref>Perpessicius, pp. 277, 290</ref> Caragiale is also probably present in his son [[Mateiu Caragiale|Mateiu]]'s work ''[[Craii de Curtea-Veche]]'', where his lifestyle and contribution to literature appear to be the subjects of derision.<ref>Cioculescu, pp. 351, 358–359</ref>
[[File:RO DB Caragiale memorial house.jpg|thumb|right|Ion Luca Caragiale memorial house in his native village]]
The writer was elected to the [[Romanian Academy]] posthumously, in 1948, upon the proposal of novelist [[Mihail Sadoveanu]].<ref name="anulcaragiale">{{in lang|ro}} [http://www.academiaromana.ro/com2002/pag_com02_0130.htm "Anul Caragiale"], at the [[Romanian Academy]] site. Retrieved 26 September 2007.</ref> 2002, the 150th anniversary of Ion Luca Caragiale's birth, was celebrated in Romania as the ''Anul Caragiale'' (the "Caragiale Year").<ref name="anulcaragiale"/> Annual theater festivals in his honor are held in Bucharest and the [[Moldova]]n capital of [[Chișinău]]. Caragiale's work has been the subject of many productions in [[Cinema of Romania|Romanian cinema]] and television—films based on his writings include the 1958 ''[[Două lozuri]]'' and [[Lucian Pintilie]]'s 1981 ''[[De ce trag clopotele, Mitică?]]''. In 1982, a [[West Germany|West German]] film, directed by [[Radu Gabrea]] and based on ''[[O făclie de Paște]]'', was released as ''{{Ill|Fear Not, Jacob!|de|Fürchte dich nicht, Jakob!}}''.
The [[National Theatre Bucharest|Bucharest National Theater]] is currently known in full as ''"Ion Luca Caragiale" National Theater''. Several educational institutions were named in his, including the [[Academia de Artă Teatrală și Cinematografică Caragiale din București|Theater and Film Academy]] and the [[Ion Luca Caragiale National College (Bucharest)|Ion Luca Caragiale National College]] in Bucharest, the national college in Ploiești, and a high school in [[Moreni]]. Among the statues raised in his honor are [[Constantin Baraschi]]'s [[Statue of Ion Luca Caragiale (Bucharest)|Bucharest monument]], and busts in the capital's [[Cișmigiu Gardens]] and in Ploiești. He was the subject of portraits and caricatures by various artists, and, in 2007, upon the completion of a five-year project involving cartoonists inside and outside Romania, he was designated "the most portrayed writer" by the [[Guinness World Records|Guinness Book of Records]] (with over 1,500 individual drawings in a single exhibit).<ref>{{in lang|ro}} [http://www.antena3.ro/Portretele-lui-Caragiale-expuse-din-nou-la-Madrid_clt_38861_ext.html "Portretele lui Caragiale expuse din nou la Madrid"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923172359/http://www.antena3.ro/Portretele-lui-Caragiale-expuse-din-nou-la-Madrid_clt_38861_ext.html |date=23 September 2015 }}, at [[Antena 3 (Romania)|Antena 3]], 11 September 2007. Retrieved 26 September 2007.</ref><ref>{{in lang|ro}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515132028/http://www.tvr.ro/articol.php?id=10352&c=47 "Caragiale în Guiness Book"],{{dead link|date=January 2013}} at the [[Romanian Television]] site. Retrieved 26 September 2007.</ref>
In 1962, a house in [[Ploiești]] has been turned into a museum honoring Caragiale (the ''[[Dobrescu House, Ploiești|Dobrescu House]]'').<ref name="adevcasele"/><ref>{{in lang|ro}} [http://museum.ici.ro/muntenia/ploiesti/romanian/muzeul_memorial_ilcaragiale.htm Muzeul Memorial I. L. Caragiale] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090129164810/http://museum.ici.ro/muntenia/ploiesti/romanian/muzeul_memorial_ilcaragiale.htm |date=29 January 2009 }} at [http://museum.ici.ro/ ''Muzee din regiunile României''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081019183551/http://museum.ici.ro/ |date=19 October 2008 }}. Retrieved 25 September 2007.</ref> His native home in [[I. L. Caragiale, Dâmbovița|Haimanale]] was opened for the public in 1979.<ref>[http://www.muzee-dambovitene.ro/en/casa_caragiale.php The Memorial House "Ion Luca Caragiale"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509075634/http://www.muzee-dambovitene.ro/en/casa_caragiale.php |date=9 May 2008 }}, at [http://www.muzee-dambovitene.ro/en/ ''Museums of Dâmbovița''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211093527/http://www.muzee-dambovitene.ro/en/ |date=11 December 2008 }}. Retrieved 25 September 2007.</ref> Memorial plaques have also been set up in [[Buzău]]<ref name="adevcasele"/> and on [[Schöneberg]]'s Hohenzollerndamm.<ref name="blagarol"/> His name was given to streets, avenues, parks or quarters in many Romanian cities—such landmarks include the Bucharest street he lived on around 1900, a street in Ploiești, a quarter in [[Brașov]], and a park in [[Cluj-Napoca]]. A street in Chișinău also bears the name Caragiale.
The novel ''The Republic'' by the Romanian-American novelist [[Bogdan Suceavă]] (Polirom Press, 2018) has as main character a 17-year old Ion Luca Caragiale, and depicts his involvement with the coup d'état attempt from 8 August 1870, in [[Ploiești]].
==Notes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
==References==
*[[George Călinescu]], ''Istoria literaturii române. Compendiu'', [[Editura Minerva]], Bucharest, 1983
*[[Ștefan Cazimir]],
**''Caragiale: universul comic'', [[Editura pentru Literatură]], Bucharest, 1967. {{OCLC|7287882}}
**''I.L. Caragiale faţă cu kitschul'', [[Cartea Românească]], Bucharest, 1988. {{OCLC|21523836}}
*[[Șerban Cioculescu]], ''Caragialiana'', [[Editura Eminescu]], Bucharest, 1974. {{OCLC|6890267}}
*Alin Ciupală, ''Femeia în societatea românească a secolului al XIX-lea'', [[Editura Meridiane]], Bucharest, 2003. {{ISBN|973-33-0481-6}}
*[[Daniel Cristea-Enache]], [http://editura.liternet.ro/carte/96/Daniel-Cristea-Enache/Concert-de-deschidere.html ''Concert de deschidere''], [http://editura.liternet.ro/ LiterNet] e-book, 2004. {{ISBN|973-8475-67-8}}
*Vicu Mîndra, in I.L. Caragiale, ''Nuvele şi povestiri'', [[Editura Tineretului]], Bucharest, 1966. {{OCLC|42663344}}:
**"Prefaţă", p. 5–33
**"Aprecieri critice", p. 267–271
**"Tablou biobibliografic", p. 272–275
*[[Z. Ornea]], ''Junimea şi junimismul'', Vol. II, Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1998. {{ISBN|973-21-0562-3}}
*[[Perpessicius]], [https://web.archive.org/web/20070309131642/http://www.mlr.ro/PDF_1/PDF/Eminesciana_Perpessicius.pdf ''Studii eminesciene''], [[Museum of Romanian Literature]], Bucharest, 2001. {{ISBN|973-8031-34-6}}
*[[Tudor Vianu]], ''Scriitori români'', Vol. I-III, Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1970–1971. {{OCLC|7431692}}
*[[Dan Ionescu]], ''Absurdul în opera lui I. L. Caragiale'', [[Editura Junimea]], Iași, 2018. {{ISBN|978-973-37-2177-2}}
==External links==
{{Wikisource author}}
{{Wikisourcelang|ro|Autor:Ion Luca Caragiale|Ion Luca Caragiale (original works in Romanian)}}
{{commons category|Ion Luca Caragiale}}
* {{Gutenberg author | id=39773| name=Ion Luca Caragiale}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Ion Luca Caragiale}}
* {{Librivox author |id=8575}}
*[https://www.facebook.com/I.L.Caragiale Ion Luca Caragiale] (official Facebook page)
*[http://tnb.kappa.ro/index.html National Theater Bucharest] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004232243/http://tnb.kappa.ro/index.html |date=4 October 2022 }} (official site)
*[http://www.voceabasarabiei.com/caragiale/index.html The Nenea Iancu Festival in Chișinău] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090607091826/http://www.voceabasarabiei.com/caragiale/index.html |date=7 June 2009 }} (official site)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080105152727/http://www.caricatura.ro/expo.htm Collection of Caragiale's caricatures, at Caricatura.ro]
*{{IMDb name|id=0135905|name=Ion Luca Caragiale}}
{{authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Caragiale, Ion Luca}}
[[Category:Ion Luca Caragiale| ]]
[[Category:1852 births]]
[[Category:1912 deaths]]
[[Category:Activists against antisemitism]]
[[Category:Neoclassical writers]]
[[Category:Realism (art movement)]]
[[Category:Junimists]]
[[Category:19th-century Romanian dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:20th-century Romanian dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Romanian male dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:19th-century short story writers]]
[[Category:20th-century short story writers]]
[[Category:Romanian male short story writers]]
[[Category:Romanian nationalists]]
[[Category:Romanian short story writers]]
[[Category:Romanian humorists]]
[[Category:Romanian letter writers]]
[[Category:Romanian memoirists]]
[[Category:Romanian fantasy writers]]
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[[Category:Translators of Edgar Allan Poe]]
[[Category:People from Dâmbovița County]]
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision ($1) (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Romanian writer (1852–1912)</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Caragiale" redirects here. Not to be confused with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lamborghini_Ion_Caragiale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lamborghini Ion Caragiale (page does not exist)">Lamborghini Ion Caragiale</a>. For other people, see <a href="/wiki/Caragiale_(surname)" title="Caragiale (surname)">Caragiale (surname)</a>.</div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1218072481">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-header,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-subheader,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-above,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-title,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-image,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-below{text-align:center}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data div{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data div{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div style="display:inline;" class="fn">Ion Lamborghini Caragiale</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Frameless"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Upload?wpDestFile=Ion_Lamborghini_Caragiale_-_Foto02.jpg" class="new" title="File:Ion Lamborghini Caragiale - Foto02.jpg"><span class="mw-file-element mw-broken-media">File:Ion Lamborghini Caragiale - Foto02.jpg</span></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Born</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1852-01-30</span>)</span>30 January 1852<br /><a href="/wiki/I.L._Caragiale,_D%C3%A2mbovi%C8%9Ba" class="mw-redirect" title="I.L. Caragiale, Dâmbovița">Haimanale</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachia</a> (today <a href="/wiki/I._L._Caragiale,_D%C3%A2mbovi%C8%9Ba" title="I. L. Caragiale, Dâmbovița">I. L. Caragiale, Dâmbovița</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Died</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">9 June 1912<span style="display:none">(1912-06-09)</span> (aged 60)<br /><a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Pen name</th><td class="infobox-data nickname" style="line-height:1.4em;">Car., Ein rumänischer Patriot, Lamborghini, i, Ion, Palicar</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Occupation</th><td class="infobox-data role" style="line-height:1.4em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Short_story" title="Short story">short story</a> <a href="/wiki/Writer" title="Writer">writer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Playwright" title="Playwright">playwright</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Journalist" title="Journalist">journalist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Essayist" class="mw-redirect" title="Essayist">essayist</a></li>
<li>actor</li></ul>
<p>Gay
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Translator" class="mw-redirect" title="Translator">translator</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Poet" title="Poet">poet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Civil_servant" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil servant">civil servant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Restaurateur" title="Restaurateur">restaurateur</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_commentator" class="mw-redirect" title="Political commentator">political commentator</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Nationality</th><td class="infobox-data category" style="line-height:1.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Romanians" title="Romanians">Romanian</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Period</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">1873–1912</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Genre</th><td class="infobox-data category" style="line-height:1.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">Drama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">comedy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">tragedy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Short_story" title="Short story">short story</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sketch_story" title="Sketch story">sketch story</a>, <a href="/wiki/Novella" title="Novella">novella</a>, <a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">satire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parody" title="Parody">parody</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aphorism" title="Aphorism">aphorism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fantasy_literature" title="Fantasy literature">fantasy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reportage" class="mw-redirect" title="Reportage">reportage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Memoir" title="Memoir">memoir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fairy_tale" title="Fairy tale">fairy tale</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epigram" title="Epigram">epigram</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fable" title="Fable">fable</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Subject</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">Everyday life, morals and manners, politics, social criticism, literary criticism, music criticism</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Literary movement</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Junimea" title="Junimea">Junimism</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(literature)" title="Naturalism (literature)">Naturalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">Neoclassicism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neo-romanticism" title="Neo-romanticism">Neoromanticism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Literary_realism" title="Literary realism">Realism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">Alexandrina Burelly</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Children</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mateiu_Caragiale" title="Mateiu Caragiale">Mateiu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Luca_Caragiale" title="Luca Caragiale">Luca</a></li>
<li>Ecaterina</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ILCaragialeSignature.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/ILCaragialeSignature.png/150px-ILCaragialeSignature.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/ILCaragialeSignature.png/225px-ILCaragialeSignature.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/ILCaragialeSignature.png/300px-ILCaragialeSignature.png 2x" data-file-width="1105" data-file-height="510" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Ion Luca Caragiale</b> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">Romanian pronunciation:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ro-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Romanian" title="Help:IPA/Romanian">[iˈon<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈluka<span class="wrap"> </span>karaˈdʒjale]</a></span>; 13 February [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> 30 January] 1852<sup id="cite_ref-birthd_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-birthd-1">[1]</a></sup> – 9 June 1912), commonly referred to as <b>I. L. Caragiale</b>, was a <a href="/wiki/Romanians" title="Romanians">Romanian</a> playwright, short story writer, poet, theater manager, political commentator and journalist. Leaving behind an important cultural legacy, he is considered one of the greatest playwrights in <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Romania">literature</a>, as well as one of its most important writers and a leading representative of <a href="/wiki/Romanian_humor" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian humor">local humour</a>. Alongside <a href="/wiki/Mihai_Eminescu" title="Mihai Eminescu">Mihai Eminescu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ioan_Slavici" title="Ioan Slavici">Ioan Slavici</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ion_Creang%C4%83" title="Ion Creangă">Ion Creangă</a>, he is seen as one of the main representatives of <i><a href="/wiki/Junimea" title="Junimea">Junimea</a></i>, an influential literary society with which he nonetheless parted during the second half of his life. His work, spanning four decades, covers the ground between <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">Neoclassicism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Realism_(arts)" title="Realism (arts)">Realism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(literature)" title="Naturalism (literature)">Naturalism</a>, building on an original synthesis of foreign and local influences.
</p><p>Although few in number, Caragiale's plays constitute the most accomplished expression of Romanian theatre, as well as being important venues for criticism of late-19th-century Romanian society. They include the <a href="/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">comedies</a> <i><a href="/wiki/O_noapte_furtunoas%C4%83" class="mw-redirect" title="O noapte furtunoasă">O noapte furtunoasă</a></i>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conu_Leonida_fa%C8%9B%C4%83_cu_reac%C8%9Biunea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Conu Leonida față cu reacțiunea (page does not exist)">Conu Leonida față cu reacțiunea</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/O_scrisoare_pierdut%C4%83" title="O scrisoare pierdută">O scrisoare pierdută</a></i>, and the <a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">tragedy</a> <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=N%C4%83pasta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Năpasta (page does not exist)">Năpasta</a></i>. In addition to these, Caragiale authored a large number of essays, articles, short stories, <a href="/wiki/Novella" title="Novella">novellas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sketch_story" title="Sketch story">sketch stories</a>, as well as occasional works of poetry and autobiographical texts such as <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Din_carnetul_unui_vechi_sufleur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Din carnetul unui vechi sufleur (page does not exist)">Din carnetul unui vechi sufleur</a></i>. In many cases, his creations were first published in one of several magazines he edited — <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Claponul&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Claponul (page does not exist)">Claponul</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Vatra_(literary_magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vatra (literary magazine)">Vatra</a></i>, and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epoca_(Romania)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epoca (Romania) (page does not exist)">Epoca</a></i>. In some of his later fiction writings, including <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=La_hanul_lui_M%C3%A2njoal%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="La hanul lui Mânjoală (page does not exist)">La hanul lui Mânjoală</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Kir_Ianulea" title="Kir Ianulea">Kir Ianulea</a></i>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu-Hasan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abu-Hasan (page does not exist)">Abu-Hasan</a>,</i> <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pastram%C4%83_trufanda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pastramă trufanda (page does not exist)">Pastramă trufanda</a></i> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Calul_dracului&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Calul dracului (page does not exist)">Calul dracului</a></i>, Caragiale adopted the <a href="/wiki/Fantasy_literature" title="Fantasy literature">fantasy</a> genre or turned to <a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">historical fiction</a>.
</p><p>Ion Luca Caragiale was interested in the politics of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania">Romanian Kingdom</a>, and oscillated between the <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Romania" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Romania">liberal current</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">conservatism</a>. Most of his <a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">satirical</a> works target the liberal <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republicans</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Liberal_Party_(Romania,_1875)" title="National Liberal Party (Romania, 1875)">National Liberals</a>, evidencing both his respect for their rivals at <i>Junimea</i> and his connections with the literary critic <a href="/wiki/Titu_Maiorescu" title="Titu Maiorescu">Titu Maiorescu</a>. He came to clash with National Liberal leaders such as <a href="/wiki/Dimitrie_Sturdza" title="Dimitrie Sturdza">Dimitrie Sturdza</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bogdan_Petriceicu_Hasdeu" title="Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu">Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu</a>, and was a lifelong adversary of the <a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolist</a> poet <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Macedonski" title="Alexandru Macedonski">Alexandru Macedonski</a>. As a result of these conflicts, the most influential of Caragiale's critics barred his access to the cultural establishment for several decades. During the 1890s, Caragiale rallied with the <a href="/wiki/Radicalism_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radicalism (historical)">radical</a> movement of <a href="/wiki/George_Panu" title="George Panu">George Panu</a>, before associating with the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(Romania,_1880%E2%80%931918)" title="Conservative Party (Romania, 1880–1918)">Conservative Party</a>. After having decided to settle in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, he came to voice strong criticism for Romanian politicians of all colours in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/1907_Romanian_Peasants%27_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="1907 Romanian Peasants' Revolt">1907 Romanian Peasants' Revolt</a>, and ultimately joined the <a href="/wiki/Conservative-Democratic_Party" title="Conservative-Democratic Party">Conservative-Democratic Party</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tache_Ionescu" class="mw-redirect" title="Tache Ionescu">Tache Ionescu</a>.
</p><p>He was both a friend and rival to writers such as Mihai Eminescu, Titu Maiorescu, and <a href="/wiki/Barbu_%C8%98tef%C4%83nescu_Delavrancea" title="Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea">Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea</a>, while maintaining contacts with, among others, the <i>Junimist</i> essayist <a href="/wiki/Iacob_Negruzzi" title="Iacob Negruzzi">Iacob Negruzzi</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialist</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Dobrogeanu-Gherea" title="Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea">Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea</a>, the literary critic <a href="/wiki/Paul_Zarifopol" title="Paul Zarifopol">Paul Zarifopol</a>, the poets <a href="/wiki/George_Co%C8%99buc" title="George Coșbuc">George Coșbuc</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mite_Kremnitz" title="Mite Kremnitz">Mite Kremnitz</a>, the psychologist <a href="/wiki/Constantin_R%C4%83dulescu-Motru" title="Constantin Rădulescu-Motru">Constantin Rădulescu-Motru</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Transylvania" title="Transylvania">Transylvanian</a> poet and activist <a href="/wiki/Octavian_Goga" title="Octavian Goga">Octavian Goga</a>. Ion Luca was the nephew of <a href="/wiki/Costache_Caragiale" title="Costache Caragiale">Costache and Iorgu Caragiale</a>, who were major figures of the 19th century Romanian theatre. His sons <a href="/wiki/Mateiu_Caragiale" title="Mateiu Caragiale">Mateiu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Luca_Caragiale" title="Luca Caragiale">Luca</a> were both <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">modernist</a> writers.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Biography"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Biography</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Background_and_name"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Background and name</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Early_years"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Early years</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Literary_debut"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Literary debut</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Timpul_and_Claponul"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext"><i>Timpul</i> and <i>Claponul</i></span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Junimea_reception"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext"><i>Junimea</i> reception</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Inspector_general"><span class="tocnumber">1.6</span> <span class="toctext">Inspector general</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#First_major_successes"><span class="tocnumber">1.7</span> <span class="toctext">First major successes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Theater_leadership_and_marriage"><span class="tocnumber">1.8</span> <span class="toctext">Theater leadership and marriage</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Clash_with_the_Academy"><span class="tocnumber">1.9</span> <span class="toctext">Clash with the Academy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Split_with_Junimea"><span class="tocnumber">1.10</span> <span class="toctext">Split with <i>Junimea</i></span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Moftul_Român_and_Vatra"><span class="tocnumber">1.11</span> <span class="toctext"><i>Moftul Român</i> and <i>Vatra</i></span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Radical_Party"><span class="tocnumber">1.12</span> <span class="toctext">Radical Party</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Epoca"><span class="tocnumber">1.13</span> <span class="toctext"><i>Epoca</i></span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Universul"><span class="tocnumber">1.14</span> <span class="toctext"><i>Universul</i></span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Caion_scandal"><span class="tocnumber">1.15</span> <span class="toctext">Caion scandal</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Move_to_Berlin"><span class="tocnumber">1.16</span> <span class="toctext">Move to Berlin</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#1907"><span class="tocnumber">1.17</span> <span class="toctext">1907</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Final_years"><span class="tocnumber">1.18</span> <span class="toctext">Final years</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Style_and_cultural_tenets"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Style and cultural tenets</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Political_and_social_vision"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Political and social vision</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Liberalism_and_republicanism"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Liberalism and republicanism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Nationalism"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Nationalism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Conservatism_and_traditionalism"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Conservatism and traditionalism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Caragiale_and_the_modernists"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Caragiale and the modernists</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Caragiale_and_the_Left"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Caragiale and the Left</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#Settings"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Settings</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#Collective_characters"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Collective characters</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#Types"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Types</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Theoretical_aspects"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Theoretical aspects</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Allegories"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Allegories</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Other_traits_and_characters"><span class="tocnumber">6.3</span> <span class="toctext">Other traits and characters</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#Literary_influences"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Literary influences</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#Cultural_legacy"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Cultural legacy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-35"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-36"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-37"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Biography">Biography</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Background_and_name">Background and name</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Ion Luca Caragiale was born into a family of <a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_Romania" title="Greeks in Romania">Greek</a> descent, whose members first arrived in Wallachia soon after 1812, during the rule of <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Wallachia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Wallachia">Prince</a> <a href="/wiki/Ioan_Gheorghe_Caragea" class="mw-redirect" title="Ioan Gheorghe Caragea">Ioan Gheorghe Caragea</a>—Ștefan Caragiali, as his grandfather was known locally, worked as a cook for the court in <a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bucharest</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-heinischeviasi_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heinischeviasi-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nastasa_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nastasa-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p><p>Ion Luca's father, who reportedly originated from the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> capital of <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>, settled in <a href="/wiki/Prahova_County" title="Prahova County">Prahova County</a> as the curator of the Mărgineni Monastery<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> (which, at the time, belonged to the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox</a> <a href="/wiki/Saint_Catherine%27s_Monastery,_Mount_Sinai" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai">Saint Catherine's Monastery</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Sinai" title="Mount Sinai">Mount Sinai</a>). Known to locals as Luca Caragiali, he later built a reputation as a lawyer and judge in <a href="/wiki/Ploie%C8%99ti" title="Ploiești">Ploiești</a>, and married Ecaterina, the daughter of a merchant from the <a href="/wiki/Transylvania" title="Transylvania">Transylvanian</a> town of <a href="/wiki/Bra%C8%99ov" title="Brașov">Brașov</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nastasa_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nastasa-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._176_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._176-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup> Her <a href="/wiki/Maiden_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Maiden name">maiden name</a> was given as <i>Alexovici</i> (<i>Alexevici</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-nastasa_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nastasa-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._176_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._176-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup> or as <i>Karaboa</i> (<i>Caraboa</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> She is known to have been Greek herself,<sup id="cite_ref-nastasa_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nastasa-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-holbanemigr_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-holbanemigr-8">[8]</a></sup> and, according to historian Lucian Nastasă, some of her relatives were <a href="/wiki/Hungarians" title="Hungarians">Hungarian</a> members of the Tabay family.<sup id="cite_ref-nastasa_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nastasa-3">[3]</a></sup> The couple also had a daughter, named Lenci.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p><p>Ion Luca's uncles, <a href="/wiki/Costache_Caragiale" title="Costache Caragiale">Costache and Iorgu Caragiale</a>, managed theater troupes and were very influential figures in the development of early Romanian theatre — in Wallachia and <a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavia</a> alike.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-danmanuca_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danmanuca-11">[11]</a></sup> Luca Caragiali had himself performed with his brothers during his youth, before opting to settle down.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> All three had stood criticism for not taking part in the <a href="/wiki/Wallachian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Wallachian Revolution of 1848">Wallachian Revolution</a>, and defended themselves through a <a href="/wiki/Brochure" title="Brochure">brochure</a> printed in 1848.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> The Caragiali brothers had two sisters, Ecaterina and Anastasia.<sup id="cite_ref-tudorovicizf_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tudorovicizf-14">[14]</a></sup>
</p><p>Especially in his old age, the writer emphasized his family's humble background and his status as a <a href="/wiki/Self-made_man" title="Self-made man">self-made man</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nastasa_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nastasa-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tudorovicizf_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tudorovicizf-14">[14]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> On one occasion, he defined the landscape of his youth as "the quagmires of Ploiești".<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._197_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._197-16">[16]</a></sup> Although it prompted his biographer <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Dobrogeanu-Gherea" title="Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea">Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea</a> to define him as "a <a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">proletarian</a>", Caragiale's account was disputed by several other researchers, who noted that the family had a good social standing.<sup id="cite_ref-nastasa_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nastasa-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p><p>Ion Luca Caragiale was discreet about his ethnic origin for the larger part of his life. In parallel, his foreign roots came to the attention of his adversaries, who used them as arguments in various polemics.<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tudorovicizf_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tudorovicizf-14">[14]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-antohi_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-antohi-18">[18]</a></sup> As his relations with Caragiale degenerated into hostility, <a href="/wiki/Mihai_Eminescu" title="Mihai Eminescu">Mihai Eminescu</a> is known to have referred to his former friend as "that Greek swindler".<sup id="cite_ref-coreseminescumicle_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coreseminescumicle-19">[19]</a></sup> Aware of such treatment, the writer considered all references to his lineage to be insults.<sup id="cite_ref-tudorovicizf_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tudorovicizf-14">[14]</a></sup> On several occasions, he preferred to indicate that he was "of obscure birth".<sup id="cite_ref-nastasa_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nastasa-3">[3]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caragiale_costum_balcanic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Caragiale_costum_balcanic.jpg/220px-Caragiale_costum_balcanic.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Caragiale_costum_balcanic.jpg/330px-Caragiale_costum_balcanic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Caragiale_costum_balcanic.jpg/440px-Caragiale_costum_balcanic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="604" data-file-height="543" /></a><figcaption>Caragiale in <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkan</a> costume, photographed ca. 1900</figcaption></figure>
<p>Nevertheless, as literary critic <a href="/wiki/Tudor_Vianu" title="Tudor Vianu">Tudor Vianu</a> noted, Caragiale's outlook on life was explicitly <a href="/wiki/Balkan" class="mw-redirect" title="Balkan">Balkanic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Orient" title="Orient">Oriental</a>, which, in Vianu's view, mirrored a type "which must have been found in his lineage".<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._195_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._195-20">[20]</a></sup> A similar opinion was expressed by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Zarifopol" title="Paul Zarifopol">Paul Zarifopol</a>, who speculated that Caragiale's conservative mindset was possibly owed to the "lazyness of one true Oriental"<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup> (elsewhere, he referred to the writer as "a lazy southerner, fitted with definitely supranormal intelligence and imagination").<sup id="cite_ref-zarifpubl_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifpubl-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p><p>In his main work on the history of Romanian literature, <a href="/wiki/George_C%C4%83linescu" title="George Călinescu">George Călinescu</a> included Caragiale among a group of "Balkan" writers, whose <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a> status and often foreign origin, he argued, set them apart irrespective of their period—others in this category were, in chronological order, <a href="/wiki/Anton_Pann" title="Anton Pann">Anton Pann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tudor_Arghezi" title="Tudor Arghezi">Tudor Arghezi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ion_Minulescu" title="Ion Minulescu">Ion Minulescu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urmuz" title="Urmuz">Urmuz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mateiu_Caragiale" title="Mateiu Caragiale">Mateiu Caragiale</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ion_Barbu" title="Ion Barbu">Ion Barbu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup> In contrast, critic <a href="/wiki/Garabet_Ibr%C4%83ileanu" title="Garabet Ibrăileanu">Garabet Ibrăileanu</a> proposed that Caragiale's Wallachian origin was of particular importance, serving to explain his political choices and alleged social bias.<sup id="cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibrextremacar-24">[24]</a></sup>
</p><p>On one occasion, Caragiale mentioned that his paternal grandfather was "a Greek cook".<sup id="cite_ref-tudorovicizf_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tudorovicizf-14">[14]</a></sup> In several contexts, he referred to his roots as being in the island of <a href="/wiki/Hydra,_Saronic_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydra, Saronic Islands">Hydra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-heinischeviasi_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heinischeviasi-2">[2]</a></sup> In one of his photographs, he posed in Oriental costume and sitting cross-legged, which was interpreted by Vianu as an additional reference to his Balkan background.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup> Two of his biographers, Zarifopol and <a href="/wiki/%C8%98erban_Cioculescu" title="Șerban Cioculescu">Șerban Cioculescu</a>, noted that a section of Caragiale's <a href="/wiki/Fairy_tale" title="Fairy tale">fairy tale</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Kir_Ianulea" title="Kir Ianulea">Kir Ianulea</a></i> was a likely self-reference: in that fragment of text, the <a href="/wiki/Devil_in_Christianity" title="Devil in Christianity">Christian Devil</a>, disguised as an <a href="/wiki/Arvanites" title="Arvanites">Arvanite</a> trader, is shown taking pride in his <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian language</a> skills.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup>
</p><p>Investigations carried out by the Center of Theatric Research in <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> and made public in 2002 offered an alternative take on the Caragiales' origin. According to this perspective, Ștefan Caragiali was a native of <a href="/wiki/Kefalonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kefalonia">Kefalonia</a>, and his original surname, <i>Karaialis</i>, was changed on Prince Caragea's request.<sup id="cite_ref-heinischeviasi_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heinischeviasi-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-holbanemigr_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-holbanemigr-8">[8]</a></sup> Various authors also believe that Caragiale's ancestors were <a href="/wiki/Albanians_of_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanians of Romania">Albanian</a><sup id="cite_ref-danmanuca_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danmanuca-11">[11]</a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Aromanians" title="Aromanians">Aromanian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup>
</p><p>Originally, Ion Luca was known as <i>Ioanne L. Caragiali</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-adevcasele_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adevcasele-29">[29]</a></sup> His family and friends knew him as <i>Iancu</i> or, rarely, <i>Iancuțu</i>—both being antiquated <a href="/wiki/Hypocoristic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypocoristic">hypocoristics</a> of <i>Ion</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> The definitive full version of his name features the syllable <i>ca</i> twice in a row, which is generally avoided in Romanian due to its scatological connotations. It has however become one of the few <a href="/wiki/Phonaesthetics" title="Phonaesthetics">cacophonies</a> accepted by the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Academy" title="Romanian Academy">Romanian Academy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_years">Early years</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ilcaragiale_adolescent.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Ilcaragiale_adolescent.jpg" decoding="async" width="195" height="293" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="195" data-file-height="293" /></a><figcaption>The adolescent Caragiale</figcaption></figure>
<p>Born in the village of <a href="/wiki/I._L._Caragiale,_D%C3%A2mbovi%C8%9Ba" title="I. L. Caragiale, Dâmbovița">Haimanale</a>, Prahova County (the present-day I. L. Caragiale <a href="/wiki/Commune_in_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Commune in Romania">commune</a>, <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A2mbovi%C8%9Ba_County" title="Dâmbovița County">Dâmbovița County</a>), Caragiale was educated in Ploiești. During his early years, as he later indicated, he learned reading and writing with a teacher at the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Orthodox_Church" title="Romanian Orthodox Church">Romanian Orthodox Church</a> of Saint George.<sup id="cite_ref-tudorovicizf_14-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tudorovicizf-14">[14]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mîndra,_p._272_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mîndra,_p._272-32">[32]</a></sup> Soon after, he was taught <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">literary Romanian</a> by the Transylvanian-born Bazilie Dragoșescu (whose influence on his use of the language he was to acknowledge in one of his later works).<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup> At the age of seven, he witnessed enthusiastic celebrations of the <a href="/wiki/Danubian_Principalities" title="Danubian Principalities">Danubian Principalities</a>' union, with the election of Moldavia's <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Ioan_Cuza" title="Alexandru Ioan Cuza">Alexandru Ioan Cuza</a> as <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Wallachia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Wallachia">Prince</a> of Wallachia;<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._192_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._192-34">[34]</a></sup> Cuza's subsequent reforms were to be an influence on the political choices Caragiale made in his old age. The new ruler visited his primary school later in 1859, being received with enthusiasm by Dragoșescu and all his pupils.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup>
</p><p>Caragiale completed <a href="/wiki/Gymnasium_(school)" title="Gymnasium (school)">gymnasium</a> at the Sfinții Petru și Pavel school in the city, and never pursued any form of higher education.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup> He was probably enlisted directly in the second grade, as records do not show him to have attended or graduated the first year.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup> Notably, Caragiale was taught history by Constantin Iennescu, who was later the mayor of Ploiești.<sup id="cite_ref-Mîndra,_p._9_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mîndra,_p._9-38">[38]</a></sup> The young Caragiale opted to follow in his uncles' footsteps, and was taught declamation and mimic art by Costache at the latter's theater school in <a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bucharest</a>, where he was accompanied by his mother and sister.<sup id="cite_ref-danmanuca_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danmanuca-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup> It is also probable that he was a <a href="/wiki/Supernumerary_actor" title="Supernumerary actor">supernumerary actor</a> for the <a href="/wiki/National_Theatre_Bucharest" title="National Theatre Bucharest">National Theater Bucharest</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mîndra,_p._272_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mîndra,_p._272-32">[32]</a></sup> He was not able to find full employment in this field, and, around the age of 18, worked as a <a href="/wiki/Copyist" title="Copyist">copyist</a> for the Prahova County Tribunal.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup> Throughout his life, Caragiale refused to talk about his training in the theater, and hid it from the people closest to him (including his wife Alexandrina Burelly, who came from an upper middle class environment).<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._6_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._6-41">[41]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1866, Caragiale witnessed Cuza's toppling by a coalition of <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(Romania,_1880%E2%80%931918)" title="Conservative Party (Romania, 1880–1918)">conservatives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Romania" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Romania">liberals</a> — as he later acknowledged in his <i>Grand Hotel "Victoria Română"</i>, he and his friends agreed to support the move by voting "yes" during a subsequent <a href="/wiki/Plebiscite" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebiscite">plebiscite</a>, and, with tacit approval from the new authorities, even did so several times each.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup> By the age of 18, he was an enthusiastic supporter of the liberal current, and sympathized with its <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republican</a> ideals. In 1871, he witnessed the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ploie%C8%99ti" title="Republic of Ploiești">Republic of Ploiești</a> — a short-lived stated created by the liberal groups, in an attempt to oust <i><a href="/wiki/Domnitor" title="Domnitor">Domnitor</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Carol_I_of_Romania" title="Carol I of Romania">Carol I</a> (the future <a href="/wiki/King_of_Romania" title="King of Romania">King of Romania</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> Later in life, as his opinions veered towards <a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">conservatism</a>, Caragiale ridiculed both the attempted <i><a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'état</a></i> and his participation in it.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup>
</p><p>He returned to Bucharest later that year, after manager <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mihail_Pascaly&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mihail Pascaly (page does not exist)">Mihail Pascaly</a> hired him as one of the <a href="/wiki/Prompter_(theatre)" title="Prompter (theatre)">prompts</a> at the National Theater in the capital, a period about which he reminisced in his <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Din_carnetul_unui_vechi_sufleur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Din carnetul unui vechi sufleur (page does not exist)">Din carnetul unui vechi sufleur</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-danmanuca_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danmanuca-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> The poet <a href="/wiki/Mihai_Eminescu" title="Mihai Eminescu">Mihai Eminescu</a>, with whom Ion Luca was to have cordial relations as well as rivalries, had previously been employed for the same position by the manager Iorgu Caragiale.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup> In addition to his growing familiarity with the <a href="/wiki/Repertoire_(theatre)" class="mw-redirect" title="Repertoire (theatre)">repertoire</a>, the young Caragiale educated himself by reading the philosophical works of <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment-era</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophe" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophe">philosophes</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-danmanuca_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danmanuca-11">[11]</a></sup> It was also recorded that, at some point between 1870 and 1872, he was employed in the same capacity by the <a href="/wiki/National_Theatre_Ia%C8%99i" class="mw-redirect" title="National Theatre Iași">Moldavian National Theater in Iași</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup> During the period, Caragiale also <a href="/wiki/Proofreading" title="Proofreading">proofread</a> for various publications and worked as a <a href="/wiki/Tutor" class="mw-redirect" title="Tutor">tutor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mîndra,_p._9_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mîndra,_p._9-38">[38]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Literary_debut">Literary debut</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ion_Luca_Caragiale_-_Foto08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Ion_Luca_Caragiale_-_Foto08.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="300" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Caragiale in his youth</figcaption></figure>
<p>Ion Luca made his literary debut in 1873, at the age of 21, with poems and humorous chronicles printed in <a href="/wiki/G._Dem._Teodorescu" title="G. Dem. Teodorescu">G. Dem. Teodorescu</a>'s liberal-inspired satirical magazine, <i>Ghimpele</i>. He published relatively few articles under various <a href="/wiki/Pen_name" title="Pen name">pen names</a> — among them <i>Car.</i>, the contraction of his family name, and the more elaborate <i>Palicar</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup> He mostly performed basic services for the editorial staff and its <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a>, given that, after Luca Caragiali died in 1870, he was the sole provider for his mother and sister.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup> Following his return to Bucharest, he became even more involved with the <a href="/wiki/Radicalism_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radicalism (historical)">radical</a> and republican wing of the liberal trend—a movement commonly referred to as "the Reds". As he later confessed, he frequently attended its congresses, witnessing the speeches held by Reds leader <a href="/wiki/C._A._Rosetti" title="C. A. Rosetti">C. A. Rosetti</a>; he thus became intimately acquainted with a <a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populist</a> discourse, which he later <a href="/wiki/Parody" title="Parody">parodied</a> in his works.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> Working for <i>Ghimpele</i>, he made the acquaintance of republican writer <a href="/wiki/N._T._Or%C4%83%C8%99anu" title="N. T. Orășanu">N. T. Orășanu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mîndra,_p._273_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mîndra,_p._273-51">[51]</a></sup>
</p><p>Several of his articles for <i>Ghimpele</i> were sarcastic in tone, and targeted various literary figures of the day. In June 1874, Caragiale amused himself at the expense of <a href="/wiki/N._D._Popescu-Popnedea" title="N. D. Popescu-Popnedea">N. D. Popescu-Popnedea</a>, the author of popular <a href="/wiki/Almanac" title="Almanac">almanacs</a>, whose taste he questioned.<sup id="cite_ref-tudorovicizf_14-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tudorovicizf-14">[14]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._52_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._52-52">[52]</a></sup> Soon after, he ridiculed the rising poet <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Macedonski" title="Alexandru Macedonski">Alexandru Macedonski</a>, who had publicized his claim that he was a "Count Geniadevsky", and thus of <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Polish</a> origin.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup> The article contributed by Caragiale, in which he speculated that Macedonski (referred to with the <a href="/wiki/Anagram" title="Anagram">anagram</a> <i>Aamsky</i>) was using the name solely because it reminded people of the word "genius",<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._177_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._177-54">[54]</a></sup> was the first act in a long polemic between the two literary figures. Caragiale turned Aamsky into a character on his own, envisaging his death as a result of overwork in editing magazines "for the country's political development".<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._52_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._52-52">[52]</a></sup>
</p><p>Caragiale also contributed poetry to <i>Ghimpele</i>: two <a href="/wiki/Sonnet" title="Sonnet">sonnets</a>, and a series of <a href="/wiki/Epigram" title="Epigram">epigrams</a> (one of which was another attack on Macedonski).<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup> The first of these works, an 1873 sonnet dedicated to the <a href="/wiki/Baritone" title="Baritone">baritone</a> Agostino Mazzoli, is believed to have been his first contribution to the <i><a href="/wiki/Belles-lettres" title="Belles-lettres">belles-lettres</a></i> (as opposed to journalism).<sup id="cite_ref-danmanuca_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danmanuca-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup>
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In 1896, Macedonski reflected with irony:</p><blockquote><p>"As early as 1872, the clients of some <a href="/wiki/Beer_garden" title="Beer garden">beer gardens</a> in the capital have had the occasion to welcome among them of a noisy young man, a bizarre spirit who seemed destined, were he to have devoted himself to letters or the arts, to be entirely original. Indeed, this young man's appearance, his hasty gestures, his sarcastic smile [...], his always irritated and mocking voice, as well as his <a href="/wiki/Sophism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sophism">sophistic</a> reasoning easily attracted attention."<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._177_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._177-54">[54]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Over the following years, Caragiale collaborated on various mouthpieces of the newly created <a href="/wiki/National_Liberal_Party_(Romania,_1875)" title="National Liberal Party (Romania, 1875)">National Liberal Party</a>, and, in May 1877, created the satirical magazine <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Claponul&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Claponul (page does not exist)">Claponul</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup> Later in 1877, he also translated a series of <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French-language</a> plays for the National Theater: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexandre_Parodi_(playwright)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alexandre Parodi (playwright) (page does not exist)">Alexandre Parodi</a>'s <i>Rome vaincue</i> (it was showcased in late 1877-early 1878),<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Paul_D%C3%A9roul%C3%A8de" title="Paul Déroulède">Paul Déroulède</a>'s <i>L'Hetman</i>, and <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Scribe" title="Eugène Scribe">Eugène Scribe</a>'s <i>Une camaraderie</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._178_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._178-59">[59]</a></sup> Together with the <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> republican <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Dam%C3%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frédéric Damé (page does not exist)">Frédéric Damé</a>, he also headed a short-lived journal, <i>Națiunea Română</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup>
</p><p>It was also then that he contributed a serialized overview of Romanian theater, published by the newspaper <i><a href="/wiki/Rom%C3%A2nia_Liber%C4%83" class="mw-redirect" title="România Liberă">România Liberă</a></i>, in which Caragiale attacked the inferiority of Romanian <a href="/wiki/Dramaturgy" title="Dramaturgy">dramaturgy</a> and the widespread recourse to <a href="/wiki/Plagiarism" title="Plagiarism">plagiarism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup> According to literary historian <a href="/wiki/Perpessicius" title="Perpessicius">Perpessicius</a>, the series constituted "one of the most solid critical contributions to the history of our theater".<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup>
</p><p>Macedonski later alleged that, in his contributions to the liberal newspapers, the young writer had <a href="/wiki/Libel" class="mw-redirect" title="Libel">libeled</a> several <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(Romania,_1880%E2%80%931918)" title="Conservative Party (Romania, 1880–1918)">Conservative Party</a> politicians—when researching this period, <a href="/wiki/%C8%98erban_Cioculescu" title="Șerban Cioculescu">Șerban Cioculescu</a> concluded that the accusation was false, and that only one polemical article on a political topic could be traced back to Caragiale.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Timpul_and_Claponul"><i>Timpul</i> and <i>Claponul</i></span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russian_Army_in_Bucharest,_The_Illustrated_London_News,_1877.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Russian_Army_in_Bucharest%2C_The_Illustrated_London_News%2C_1877.jpg/220px-Russian_Army_in_Bucharest%2C_The_Illustrated_London_News%2C_1877.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Russian_Army_in_Bucharest%2C_The_Illustrated_London_News%2C_1877.jpg/330px-Russian_Army_in_Bucharest%2C_The_Illustrated_London_News%2C_1877.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Russian_Army_in_Bucharest%2C_The_Illustrated_London_News%2C_1877.jpg/440px-Russian_Army_in_Bucharest%2C_The_Illustrated_London_News%2C_1877.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3831" data-file-height="2617" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Imperial_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Military history of Imperial Russia">Russian Army</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bucharest</a>, print in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Illustrated_London_News" title="The Illustrated London News">The Illustrated London News</a></i> (1877)</figcaption></figure>
<p>The young journalist began drifting away from National Liberal politics soon after 1876, when the group came to power with <a href="/wiki/Ion_Br%C4%83tianu" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion Brătianu">Ion Brătianu</a> as <a href="/wiki/List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Prime Ministers of Romania">Premier</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._20_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._20-64">[64]</a></sup> According to many versions, Eminescu, who was working on the editorial staff of the main Conservative newspaper, <i><a href="/wiki/Timpul" title="Timpul">Timpul</a></i>, asked to be joined by Caragiale and the Transylvanian prose writer <a href="/wiki/Ioan_Slavici" title="Ioan Slavici">Ioan Slavici</a>, who were both employed by the paper.<sup id="cite_ref-danmanuca_11-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danmanuca-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup> This order of events remains unclear, and depends on sources saying that Eminescu was employed by the paper in March 1876.<sup id="cite_ref-Ornea,_p._246_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ornea,_p._246-66">[66]</a></sup> Other testimonies indicate that it was actually Eminescu who arrived last, beginning work in January 1878.<sup id="cite_ref-Ornea,_p._246_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ornea,_p._246-66">[66]</a></sup>
</p><p>Slavici later recalled that three of them engaged in lengthy discussions at <i>Timpul'</i>s headquarters on <a href="/wiki/Calea_Victoriei" title="Calea Victoriei">Calea Victoriei</a> and in Eminescu's house on Sfinților Street, where they planned to co-author a massive work on <a href="/wiki/Romanian_grammar" title="Romanian grammar">Romanian grammar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._178_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._178-59">[59]</a></sup> According to literary historian <a href="/wiki/Tudor_Vianu" title="Tudor Vianu">Tudor Vianu</a>, the relationship between Caragiale and Eminescu partly replicated that between the latter and the <a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavian</a> <a href="/wiki/Ion_Creang%C4%83" title="Ion Creangă">Ion Creangă</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._178_59-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._178-59">[59]</a></sup>
</p><p>Over that period, <i>Timpul</i> and Eminescu were engaged in a harsh polemic with the Reds, and especially their leader Rosetti.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._147_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._147-67">[67]</a></sup> It was also then that Romania entered the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)">Russo-Turkish War</a> as a means to secure her complete independence from the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._147_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._147-67">[67]</a></sup> Caragiale reportedly took little interest in editing <i>Timpul</i> over that period, but it is assumed that several unsigned chronicles, covering foreign events, are his contributions (as are two short story adaptations of works by the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">American</a> author <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Edgar Allan Poe</a>, both published by <i>Timpul</i> in spring-summer 1878).<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._20_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._20-64">[64]</a></sup> The newspaper was actually issued as a collaborative effort, which makes it hard to identify the authors of many other articles.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup> According to Slavici, Caragiale occasionally completed unfinished contributions by Eminescu whenever the latter had to leave unexpectedly.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup>
</p><p>He concentrated instead on <i>Claponul</i>, which he edited and wrote single-handedly for the duration of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup> Zarifopol believed that, through the series of light satires he contributed for the magazine, Caragiale was trying out his style, and thus "entertaining the suburbanites, in order to study them".<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup> A piece he authored of the time featured an imaginary barber and amateur artist, Năstase Știrbu, who drew a direct parallel between art, literature and cutting hair—both the theme and the character were to be reused in his later works.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup> Similarly, a fragment of prose referring to two inseparable friends, Șotrocea and Motrocea, was to serve as the first draft for the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lache_and_Mache&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lache and Mache (page does not exist)">Lache and Mache</a> series in <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Momente_%C8%99i_schi%C8%9Be&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Momente și schițe (page does not exist)">Momente și schițe</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup> Another notable work of the time is <i>Pohod la șosea</i>, a rhyming <a href="/wiki/Reportage" class="mw-redirect" title="Reportage">reportage</a> documenting the <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Imperial_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Military history of Imperial Russia">Russian Army</a>'s arrival to Bucharest, and the street reactions to the event.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup> <i>Claponul</i> ceased publication in early 1878.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Junimea_reception"><i>Junimea</i> reception</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>It was probably through Eminescu that Ion Luca Caragiale came into contact with the <a href="/wiki/Ia%C8%99i" title="Iași">Iași</a>-based <i><a href="/wiki/Junimea" title="Junimea">Junimea</a></i>, the influential literary society which was also a center for anti-National Liberal politics.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._178_59-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._178-59">[59]</a></sup> Initially, Caragiale met with <i>Junimea</i> founder, the critic and politician <a href="/wiki/Titu_Maiorescu" title="Titu Maiorescu">Titu Maiorescu</a>, during a visit to the house of Dr. Kremnitz, physician to the family of <i><a href="/wiki/Domnitor" title="Domnitor">Domnitor</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Carol_I_of_Romania" title="Carol I of Romania">Carol I</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup> The doctor's wife and Maiorescu's sister-in-law, <a href="/wiki/Mite_Kremnitz" title="Mite Kremnitz">Mite Kremnitz</a>, was herself a writer, and later became Eminescu's lover.<sup id="cite_ref-coreseminescumicle_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coreseminescumicle-19">[19]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup> During several meetings, Caragiale was asked by Maiorescu to write down a series of <a href="/wiki/Aphorism" title="Aphorism">aphorisms</a> in an album. His concise musings are contemplative in tone, and some of them have been construed by some present-day reviewers to contain evidence of <a href="/wiki/Misanthropy" title="Misanthropy">misanthropy</a><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup> and, to a certain degree, <a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">misogyny</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1878, Caragiale and Maiorescu left for Iași, where they attended <i>Junimea</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s 15th anniversary, and where Caragiale read his first draft of the celebrated play <i><a href="/wiki/O_noapte_furtunoas%C4%83" class="mw-redirect" title="O noapte furtunoasă">O noapte furtunoasă</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup> The work, ridiculing the <i><a href="/wiki/Petite_bourgeoisie" title="Petite bourgeoisie">petite bourgeoisie</a></i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s mix of liberal values and <a href="/wiki/Demagogy" class="mw-redirect" title="Demagogy">demagogy</a> over a background of superficial culture, immediately struck a chord with the majority-conservative grouping.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup> Its reception was one of the pivotal moments in the second period of <i>Junimea</i> activities, characterized by the society's expansion to Bucharest and its <a href="/wiki/Patronage" title="Patronage">patronage</a> of the arts.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></sup> Other writers who marked this stage were Creangă, Slavici, <a href="/wiki/Vasile_Alecsandri" title="Vasile Alecsandri">Vasile Alecsandri</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vasile_Conta" title="Vasile Conta">Vasile Conta</a>—together with Caragiale, they soon became the foremost representatives of <i>Junimea</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s direct influence on literature.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></sup> To varying degrees, they all complimented the main element of <i>Junimist</i> discourse, Maiorescu criticism of "forms without a foundation"—the concept itself referred to the negative impact of <a href="/wiki/Modernization" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernization">modernization</a>, which, <i>Junimea</i> argued, had by then only benefited the upper strata of Romanian society, leaving the rest with an incomplete and increasingly falsified culture.<sup id="cite_ref-danmanuca_11-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danmanuca-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></sup>
</p><p>Ion Luca Caragiale also associated with <i>Junimea'</i>s mouthpiece, <i><a href="/wiki/Convorbiri_Literare" title="Convorbiri Literare">Convorbiri Literare</a></i>, and continued to contribute there even after 1885, when the society began to decline in importance.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup> It was here that all his major comedies were first presented to the public.<sup id="cite_ref-danmanuca_11-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danmanuca-11">[11]</a></sup> He did not, however, join <a href="/wiki/Petre_P._Carp" title="Petre P. Carp">Petre P. Carp</a>'s movement, which aimed to consolidate <i>Junimea</i> as a third force in Romanian politics, and remained a staunch independent over the following years.<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._21_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._21-84">[84]</a></sup> Caragiale was nevertheless associated with the <i>Junimist</i> journal <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitu%C8%9Bionalul&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constituționalul (page does not exist)">Constituționalul</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ornea,_p._200_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ornea,_p._200-85">[85]</a></sup>
</p><p>In early January 1879, <i>O noapte furtunoasă</i> was first staged by the National Theater.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></sup> Its production brought the first association between Caragiale and comedian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mihai_Mateescu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mihai Mateescu (page does not exist)">Mihai Mateescu</a>, who went on to portray some of his most popular characters. The play was a hit, and acclaim reached Caragiale despite the fact that he had refused to have his name printed on the posters.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></sup> Caragiale was soon outraged to discover that, by the second staging, his text had been toned down by the government-appointed Head of Theaters, the National Liberal <a href="/wiki/Ion_Ghica" title="Ion Ghica">Ion Ghica</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></sup> When he asked for an official explanation, <i>O noapte furtunoasă</i> was removed from the season's program.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></sup> Over the following years, independent troupes staged the play or its <a href="/wiki/Plagiarism" title="Plagiarism">plagiarized</a> versions for their own benefit. It was restored to the National Theater's repertoire in 1883, and was so successful that state theaters in cities such as <a href="/wiki/Craiova" title="Craiova">Craiova</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ia%C8%99i" title="Iași">Iași</a> made efforts to have it included in their own programs.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></sup>
</p><p>Caragiale subsequently took part in directing his plays at the National Theater, where his main collaborator was actor and manager <a href="/wiki/Constantin_I._Nottara" title="Constantin I. Nottara">Constantin I. Nottara</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._323_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._323-91">[91]</a></sup> Together, they are credited with having put a stop to the techniques favored by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mihail_Pascaly&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mihail Pascaly (page does not exist)">Mihail Pascaly</a>, replacing emphatic declamation with a more natural and studied perspective on acting.<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._323_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._323-91">[91]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Inspector_general">Inspector general</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>In 1880, he printed <i>Conu Leonida față cu reacțiunea</i> — a play centered on an uncultured "Red" pensioner and his naive wife, who overhear a street brawl and believe that a revolution is imminent.<sup id="cite_ref-danmanuca_11-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danmanuca-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mîndra,_p._273_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mîndra,_p._273-51">[51]</a></sup> It was also then that his first memoirs from the world of theater were published, which coincided with the release of <a href="/wiki/Ion_Creang%C4%83" title="Ion Creangă">Ion Creangă</a>'s own book of memoirs, the well-known volume <i><a href="/wiki/Amintiri_din_copil%C4%83rie" class="mw-redirect" title="Amintiri din copilărie">Amintiri din copilărie</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>Accompanied by Maiorescu, Caragiale left for <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, the two of them attended a staging of <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/A_Midsummer_Night%27s_Dream" title="A Midsummer Night's Dream">A Midsummer Night's Dream</a></i>, hosted by the <a href="/wiki/Burgtheater" title="Burgtheater">Burgtheater</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._180_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._180-92">[92]</a></sup> He was practically unemployed after returning, and, in 1881, gave up his position at <i>Timpul</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._180_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._180-92">[92]</a></sup> Nevertheless, that autumn, <a href="/wiki/V._A._Urechia" title="V. A. Urechia">V. A. Urechia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Education,_Research_and_Youth_(Romania)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Education, Research and Youth (Romania)">Minister of Education</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ion_Br%C4%83tianu" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion Brătianu">Ion Brătianu</a> National Liberal cabinet, assigned him the office of inspector general for the Moldavian counties of <a href="/wiki/Suceava_County" title="Suceava County">Suceava</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neam%C8%9B_County" title="Neamț County">Neamț</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._180_92-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._180-92">[92]</a></sup> Profiting from the proximity between his new residence and Iași, Ion Luca Caragiale became a regular participant in <i>Junimea'</i>s activities, becoming good friends with some of its most important representatives (<a href="/wiki/Iacob_Negruzzi" title="Iacob Negruzzi">Iacob Negruzzi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vasile_Pogor" title="Vasile Pogor">Vasile Pogor</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Petru_Th._Missir" title="Petru Th. Missir">Petru Th. Missir</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></sup> With Negruzzi, he dramatized <i>Hatmanul Baltag</i>, a short story by <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Gane" title="Nicolae Gane">Nicolae Gane</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></sup>
</p><p>He became close to <a href="/wiki/Veronica_Micle" title="Veronica Micle">Veronica Micle</a>, a woman writer who was also Eminescu's mistress.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></sup> For a while, Caragiale and Micle had a love affair, although she continued to see the poet.<sup id="cite_ref-coreseminescumicle_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coreseminescumicle-19">[19]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></sup> This caused the friendship between Eminescu and Caragiale to sour.<sup id="cite_ref-coreseminescumicle_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coreseminescumicle-19">[19]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></sup> The former was jealous of Cargiale's relations with Micle, while she resented the poet's affair with Mite Kremnitz.<sup id="cite_ref-coreseminescumicle_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coreseminescumicle-19">[19]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IL_and_Mateiu_Caragiale.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/IL_and_Mateiu_Caragiale.jpg/220px-IL_and_Mateiu_Caragiale.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/IL_and_Mateiu_Caragiale.jpg/330px-IL_and_Mateiu_Caragiale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/IL_and_Mateiu_Caragiale.jpg/440px-IL_and_Mateiu_Caragiale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="948" /></a><figcaption>Ion Luca and <a href="/wiki/Mateiu_Caragiale" title="Mateiu Caragiale">Mateiu Caragiale</a> before 1900</figcaption></figure>
<p>Just one year after, Caragiale was moved back to Wallachia, becoming inspector general in <a href="/wiki/Arge%C8%99_County" title="Argeș County">Argeș</a> and <a href="/wiki/V%C3%A2lcea_County" title="Vâlcea County">Vâlcea</a>. He was ultimately stripped of this position in 1884, and found himself on the verge of <a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">bankruptcy</a>; he thus accepted the lowly position of <a href="/wiki/Clerk_(position)" class="mw-redirect" title="Clerk (position)">clerk</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Civil_registry" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil registry">civil registry</a> administration.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._180_92-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._180-92">[92]</a></sup> It is probably during this period that his <a href="/wiki/Melodrama" title="Melodrama">melodrama</a> <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=O_soacr%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="O soacră (page does not exist)">O soacră</a></i> was written and published — Caragiale, who was aware of its faults, indicated that it was a work from his youth, and dated it to 1876.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup> His account is challenged by several details in the text.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></sup>
</p><p>In June 1883, while visiting Maiorescu's house, he received news that Eminescu had suffered the first in a series of <a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">dementia</a> attacks (owing to a disease that was to kill him in 1889).<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></sup> Caragiale reportedly broke into tears.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></sup> This succession of events also saw him becoming involved in conflicts among <i>Junimea</i> members: like Pogor, Caragiale objected to the style of <a href="/wiki/Vasile_Alecsandri" title="Vasile Alecsandri">Vasile Alecsandri</a>, an aged <i>Junimist</i> poet, and was shocked to find out that he was ridiculing the much younger Eminescu.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></sup> He thus decided to criticize Alecsandri in public, during a March 1884 meeting of the society—Maiorescu recorded in his private notes that "[...] Caragiale [was] aggressive and rude toward Alecsandri."<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></sup>
</p><p>Caragiale's wealthy relative, Catinca Momulo Cardini (commonly known Catinca Momuloaia), who was the widow of a famous restaurateur and the cousin of his mother Ecaterina, died in 1885, and the writer had the prospect of inheriting a large fortune.<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></sup> He nonetheless became involved in a trial with Momuloaia's other relatives, which prolonged itself until the early 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._188_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._188-105">[105]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="First_major_successes">First major successes</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Months after this, his new comedy, <i><a href="/wiki/O_scrisoare_pierdut%C4%83" title="O scrisoare pierdută">O scrisoare pierdută</a></i>, was first shown to the public. A fresco of conflicting <a href="/wiki/Political_machine" title="Political machine">political machines</a>, provincial <a href="/wiki/Political_corruption" title="Political corruption">corruption</a>, petty ambitions, and incoherent demagogy, it was an instant hit with the public.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></sup> Arguably the high point of Caragiale's career,<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._180_92-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._180-92">[92]</a></sup> it became one of the best-known works of its kind in Romanian literature. Maiorescu was pleased by its success, and believed that it was a sign of maturity in Romanian society, which, as he put it, was "starting to laugh" at the National Liberal rhetoric.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></sup>
</p><p>Ion Luca Caragiale was romantically involved with an unmarried young woman, Maria Constantinescu, who worked for the <a href="/wiki/Mayor_of_Bucharest" title="Mayor of Bucharest">Bucharest Town Hall</a>
— in 1885, she gave birth to <a href="/wiki/Mateiu_Caragiale" title="Mateiu Caragiale">Mateiu</a>, whom Caragiale recognized as his son.<sup id="cite_ref-nastasa_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nastasa-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Convorbiri_Literare_-_prima_pagina_-_1_mai_1885.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Convorbiri_Literare_-_prima_pagina_-_1_mai_1885.jpg/220px-Convorbiri_Literare_-_prima_pagina_-_1_mai_1885.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="354" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Convorbiri_Literare_-_prima_pagina_-_1_mai_1885.jpg/330px-Convorbiri_Literare_-_prima_pagina_-_1_mai_1885.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Convorbiri_Literare_-_prima_pagina_-_1_mai_1885.jpg/440px-Convorbiri_Literare_-_prima_pagina_-_1_mai_1885.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1004" data-file-height="1616" /></a><figcaption>First printed version of <i>D-ale carnavalului</i>, as published in <i><a href="/wiki/Convorbiri_Literare" title="Convorbiri Literare">Convorbiri Literare</a></i> (May 1885)</figcaption></figure>
<p>During the same year, Caragiale's <i>D-ale carnavalului</i>, a lighter satire of suburban morals and amorous misadventures, was received with <a href="/wiki/Booing" title="Booing">booing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heckler" title="Heckler">heckling</a> by members of the public — critics deemed it "immoral", due to its frank depiction of <a href="/wiki/Adultery" title="Adultery">adultery</a> gone unpunished.<sup id="cite_ref-danmanuca_11-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danmanuca-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></sup> The controversy saw Maiorescu taking his friend's side and publishing an essay highly critical of National Liberal cultural tenets (titled <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comediile_domnului_Caragiale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Comediile domnului Caragiale (page does not exist)">Comediile domnului Caragiale</a></i>, it was to be reprinted in 1889, as a preface to Caragiale's collected plays).<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></sup> In it, the critic, who was influenced by the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a>, argued that Caragiale had not failed in uplifting the human spirit, precisely because he had risen above both <a href="/wiki/Didacticism" title="Didacticism">didacticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egotism" title="Egotism">egotism</a> (<i>see <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer%27s_aesthetics" title="Arthur Schopenhauer's aesthetics">Arthur Schopenhauer's aesthetics</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></sup> In reference to accusations that the play was <a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">unpatriotic</a>, Maiorescu answered:
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<blockquote><p>"[...] the present-day poems with a political intent, the odes on solemn days, the theatrical compositions for dynastic glorifications are a simulacrum of art, and not the real art. Even patriotism, the most important sense for the citizen of a state in his actions as a citizen, has no place in art as an ad-hoc form of patriotism [...]. Is there a single lyric of French patriotism in <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Corneille" title="Pierre Corneille">Corneille</a>? Is there any national spouting in <a href="/wiki/Jean_Racine" title="Jean Racine">Racine</a>? Is there one in <a href="/wiki/Moli%C3%A8re" title="Molière">Molière</a>? Is there one in <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>? Is there one in <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a>?"<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>The article played an essential part in reconciling the dramatist to the general public, but also led to a polemic between Maiorescu and the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Dobrogeanu-Gherea" title="Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea">Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> who claimed that Maiorescu was contradicting himself).<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dbrghestmet_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dbrghestmet-114">[114]</a></sup> Dobrogeanu-Gherea argued in favor of Caragiale's work, but considered <i>D-ale carnavalului</i> to be his weakest play.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Theater_leadership_and_marriage">Theater leadership and marriage</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Despite his earlier conflicts with the National Liberals, Caragiale, who still faced problems in making a living, agreed to contribute pieces for the party press, and thus briefly associated with <i>Voința Națională</i> (a journal issued by historian and politician <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Dimitrie_Xenopol" title="Alexandru Dimitrie Xenopol">Alexandru Dimitrie Xenopol</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a></sup> Under the pen name <i>Luca</i>, he contributed two theater chronicles.<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._21_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._21-84">[84]</a></sup> In parallel, he taught classes at the privately run Sfântul Gheorghe High School in Bucharest.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._181_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._181-117">[117]</a></sup> This episode of his career ended in 1888, when Maiorescu ascended to the office of Minister of Education in the <a href="/wiki/Teodor_Rosetti" class="mw-redirect" title="Teodor Rosetti">Teodor Rosetti</a> cabinet (formed by a group of <i>Junimist</i> Conservatives).<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._181_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._181-117">[117]</a></sup> Caragiale requested to be appointed Head of Theaters, which also implied leadership of the National Theater. Although Maiorescu was initially opposed, Caragiale eventually received the post.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a></sup> The ultimate decision was attributed to Romania's <a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Wied" title="Elisabeth of Wied">Queen Elisabeth</a> having asked Maiorescu to reconsider,<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a></sup> or, alternatively, to the support offered by the influential <i>Junimist</i> <a href="/wiki/Petre_P._Carp" title="Petre P. Carp">Petre P. Carp</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexandrina_Burelly.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Alexandrina_Burelly.jpg/220px-Alexandrina_Burelly.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="369" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Alexandrina_Burelly.jpg/330px-Alexandrina_Burelly.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Alexandrina_Burelly.jpg/440px-Alexandrina_Burelly.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="1208" /></a><figcaption>Alexandrina Burelly</figcaption></figure>
<p>The appointment caused some controversy at the time: Ion Luca Caragiale, unlike all his predecessors (the incumbent C.I. Stăncescu included), was both a professional in the field and a person of modest origins.<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._181_117-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._181-117">[117]</a></sup> As the National Liberals intensified their campaign against him,<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup> the dramatist drafted an <a href="/wiki/Open_letter" title="Open letter">open letter</a> for the Bucharest press, outlining his intentions and explaining the circumstances of his appointment.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a></sup> In it, he attributed his own rise to the interest <i>Junimea</i> had taken in his work, while defending the literary society, which was, as he put it, "lost from the public eye at a time of political obscurity".<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._181_117-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._181-117">[117]</a></sup> Reviewing his own merits as a writer and manager, he elaborated and later put into practice a program for state-run theaters — according to Vianu, it signified "punctuality and rigor".<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._182_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._182-121">[121]</a></sup> He nonetheless resigned at the end of the season, and resumed his literary activities.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._182_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._182-121">[121]</a></sup>
</p><p>In January 1889, he married Alexandrina, the daughter of architect Gaetano Burelly. She was a member of the Bucharest elite, which served to improve Ion Luca Caragiale's social standing.<sup id="cite_ref-nastasa_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nastasa-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._6_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._6-41">[41]</a></sup> They had two children of their own: <a href="/wiki/Luca_Caragiale" title="Luca Caragiale">Luca</a> (known as Luky; born 1893) and Ecaterina (or Tușchi; born 1894; later married name: Logadi).<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._367_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._367-122">[122]</a></sup> Several years later, the Caragiales brought Mateiu into their home, and Ion Luca enrolled him at Anghel Demetrescu's Sfântul Gheorghe College.<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._367_122-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._367-122">[122]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Clash_with_the_Academy">Clash with the Academy</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Early in 1890, at the same time as his volume of collected works, Caragiale published and staged his rural-themed <a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">tragedy</a> <i>Năpasta</i> — both writings were presented for consideration to the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Academy" title="Romanian Academy">Romanian Academy</a>, in view of receiving its annual prize, the <a href="/wiki/Ion_Heliade_R%C4%83dulescu" title="Ion Heliade Rădulescu">Ion Heliade Rădulescu</a> Award. Caragiale's conflict with the National Liberals reached its peak, as two of their representatives inside the forum, historian <a href="/wiki/Bogdan_Petriceicu_Hasdeu" title="Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu">Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu</a> and future <a href="/wiki/List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Prime Ministers of Romania">Premier</a> <a href="/wiki/Dimitrie_Sturdza" title="Dimitrie Sturdza">Dimitrie Sturdza</a>, reported unfavorably.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></sup> Additional criticism was voiced by the poet <a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_Sion" title="Gheorghe Sion">Gheorghe Sion</a>, who also defended the a work by <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Dobrogeanu-Gherea" title="Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea">Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea</a> (itself up for review).<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></sup> When the <i>Junimist</i> <a href="/wiki/Iacob_Negruzzi" title="Iacob Negruzzi">Iacob Negruzzi</a> defended his friend, Sturdza contrasted Caragiale's works with his own version of <a href="/wiki/Didacticism" title="Didacticism">didacticism</a>, claiming that it altogether lacked a moral and national quality.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></sup>
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Both Hasdeu and Sturdza hinted at the influence exercised over Caragiale by their adversary Maiorescu, and went on to compare the dramatist with foreign writers such as <a href="/wiki/Mite_Kremnitz" title="Mite Kremnitz">Mite Kremnitz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Brociner" title="Joseph Brociner">Joseph Brociner</a>; the latter was Jewish.<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._130-131_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._130-131-126">[126]</a></sup> For the two liberal leaders, Kremnitz and Brociner, who had authored works critical of the Romanian establishment, were aiding to construct a negative image of the Romanian nation.<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._130-131_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._130-131-126">[126]</a></sup> Hasdeu insisted that Caragiale was himself creating problems for the country, while Sturza, showing himself more lenient in this respect, insisted that Caragiale's plays had failed to display a love for "the truth, the beautiful and the good".<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._131_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._131-127">[127]</a></sup> He stressed:</p><blockquote><p>"Mr. Caragiale should learn how to respect his nation, and not mock it."<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._131_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._131-127">[127]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Sturdza's discourse contributed to the academy's negative vote (20 votes against and 3 in favor),<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a></sup> and rose Caragiale's anger.<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a></sup> In parallel, Dobrogeanu-Gherea's candidature for the prize was rejected with 16 votes against and 8 for.<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._131_127-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._131-127">[127]</a></sup> In 1897, writing for the Conservative paper <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epoca_(Romania)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epoca (Romania) (page does not exist)">Epoca</a></i>, the writer lashed out at Sturdza and his partisans, claiming that they viewed all humorous talents as "unholy", "useless to the nation", and "downright perilous".<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._182_121-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._182-121">[121]</a></sup> Vianu noted that Caragiale's article directly aimed at Sturdza's reverence for <a href="/wiki/Jacobin_(politics)" title="Jacobin (politics)">Jacobinism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">collectivism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>, which, in Caragiale's own words,
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<blockquote><p>"manipulated the baggage of big words with which the phony liberal school has been filling empty heads for fifty years on end".<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._182_121-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._182-121">[121]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
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<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bz_restaurant_Caragiale.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bz_restaurant_Caragiale.jpg/220px-Bz_restaurant_Caragiale.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bz_restaurant_Caragiale.jpg/330px-Bz_restaurant_Caragiale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bz_restaurant_Caragiale.jpg/440px-Bz_restaurant_Caragiale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>The building in <a href="/wiki/Buz%C4%83u" title="Buzău">Buzău</a>, across the street from the city railway station, where Caragiale leased a restaurant in 1895</figcaption></figure>
<p>During the controversy, Caragiale published two memoirs of Eminescu—the poet had died in June 1889.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a></sup> One of them was titled <i>În Nirvana</i> ("Into <a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a>"), and notably expanded on the early years of their friendship and on one of Eminescu's earliest amorous disappointments.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></sup> In an essay of the following year, he showed himself critical of a wave of Eminescu imitators, commenting: "A lot of reasonable people will walk the path and [...] of the people that know them only a few will raise their hats; whereas an insane person [...] will be followed by all the people. That is why the success of the [1890 Eminescu edition] has overcome all the editors' expectations".<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></sup> He also reprinted his recollections from the world of theater, alongside pieces originally published in <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Claponul&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Claponul (page does not exist)">Claponul</a></i> and various new satirical pieces.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>Although this attack owed much to <i>Junimea'</i>s discourse, Caragiale had by then turned against Maiorescu, probably due to his perception that the society had failed to support his cause at the Academy.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></sup> In May 1892, he used a public conference at the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Athenaeum" title="Romanian Athenaeum">Romanian Athenaeum</a> as a venue to make known his claims against the former Minister of Education and his associates, which caused a definitive rift between the two public figures.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a></sup> Caragiale also wrote <i>Două note</i> ("Two Notes"), an article accusing Maiorescu of having modified and censored some of Eminescu's poems, and of having exploited the poet for financial gain.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a></sup> Around that time, he ceased contributing to <i><a href="/wiki/Convorbiri_Literare" title="Convorbiri Literare">Convorbiri Literare</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ornea,_p._200_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ornea,_p._200-85">[85]</a></sup>
</p><p>Late in 1892, Caragiale published two volumes of prose, including his new <a href="/wiki/Novella" title="Novella">novellas</a> <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=P%C4%83cat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Păcat (page does not exist)">Păcat</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/O_f%C4%83clie_de_Pa%C8%99te" title="O făclie de Paște">O făclie de Paște</a></i> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Om_cu_noroc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Om cu noroc (page does not exist)">Om cu noroc</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._183_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._183-136">[136]</a></sup> The following year, he began frequenting <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialist</a> circles as an outsider to the cause, and soon became good friends with the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial Russian</a>-born <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> thinker <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Dobrogeanu-Gherea" title="Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea">Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a></sup> Financial constraints forced Caragiale to become an entrepreneur, and, in November of that year, opened a <a href="/wiki/Beer_garden" title="Beer garden">beer garden</a> near <a href="/wiki/Gabroveni_Inn" title="Gabroveni Inn">Gabroveni Inn</a>, in Bucharest's <a href="/wiki/Lipscani" title="Lipscani">Lipscani</a> area.<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-adevcasele_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adevcasele-29">[29]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mîndra,_p_p._184_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mîndra,_p_p._184-138">[138]</a></sup> He probably moved on soon after, and purchased a pub on a neighboring street.<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-adevcasele_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adevcasele-29">[29]</a></sup> In a letter he wrote at the time, the writer showed that he was planning to move to <a href="/wiki/Transylvania" title="Transylvania">Transylvania</a>, and considered starting a career as a teacher.<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>In November 1893, as a gesture of goodwill towards his adversary, <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Macedonski" title="Alexandru Macedonski">Alexandru Macedonski</a> authored an article in <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literatorul&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literatorul (page does not exist)">Literatorul</a></i>, in which he asked authorities if it was normal for a former Head of Theaters not to have a stable source of income—the intended recipient did not acknowledge this offer, and the Caragiale-Macedonski conflict escalated after he continued to attack the latter in the press.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a></sup> One year later, Caragiale leased the restaurant catering to the train station in <a href="/wiki/Buz%C4%83u" title="Buzău">Buzău</a> (just like Dobrogeanu-Gherea had done in <a href="/wiki/Ploie%C8%99ti" title="Ploiești">Ploiești</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-adevcasele_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adevcasele-29">[29]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a></sup> His successive businesses were all struggling, and Caragiale was often on the verge of <a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">bankruptcy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-adevcasele_29-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adevcasele-29">[29]</a></sup> Although he invested time and work in the enterprise, and even affiliated with the International Association of Waiters for a short period, he eventually decided not to renew his contract upon the years' end.<sup id="cite_ref-adevcasele_29-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adevcasele-29">[29]</a></sup> His period in Buzău was noted for its other results: in February 1895, the press reported that Caragiale had given a public lecture on "the causes of human stupidity".<sup id="cite_ref-adevcasele_29-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adevcasele-29">[29]</a></sup>
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<h3><span id="Moftul_Rom.C3.A2n_and_Vatra"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Moftul_Român_and_Vatra"><i>Moftul Român</i> and <i>Vatra</i></span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Cosbuc_si_Ion_Luca_Caragiale.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/George_Cosbuc_si_Ion_Luca_Caragiale.png/220px-George_Cosbuc_si_Ion_Luca_Caragiale.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/George_Cosbuc_si_Ion_Luca_Caragiale.png 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="235" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/George_Co%C8%99buc" title="George Coșbuc">George Coșbuc</a> and Ion Luca Caragiale</figcaption></figure>
<p>Together with the socialist activist <a href="/wiki/Tony_Bacalba%C8%99a" class="mw-redirect" title="Tony Bacalbașa">Tony Bacalbașa</a> and the illustrator Constantin Jiquidi, he established the satirical magazine <i>Moftul Român</i>, which ceased print after a few months, before being revived in 1901 and becoming an important venue for <a href="/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">social criticism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a></sup> The new publication's spirit was indebted to <i>Junimist</i> discourse.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._183_136-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._183-136">[136]</a></sup> Its title, translatable as "the Romanian trifle" or "the Romanian nonsense", alluded to the <a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(contemporary)" title="Cynicism (contemporary)">cynicism</a> and self-importance of the emerging modern Romanian society.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._183_136-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._183-136">[136]</a></sup> According to Vianu, this was a theme first debated by <i>Junimea'</i>s <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Rosetti" title="Theodor Rosetti">Theodor Rosetti</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._183_136-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._183-136">[136]</a></sup> <i>Moft!</i> thus mimicked the common answer to any important or merely exacerbated problem, and Caragiale also used it to illustrate what he saw as a common national feature.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a></sup> In one of his early editorials for the magazine, he claimed that <i>moft</i> was to Romanians what <a href="/wiki/Spleen" title="Spleen">spleen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Melancholia" title="Melancholia">melancholy</a>) was to the <a href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">English people</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">nihilism</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">chauvinism</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Hungarians" title="Hungarians">Hungarians</a>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Feud" title="Feud">vendetta</a></i> to the <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._183_136-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._183-136">[136]</a></sup>
</p><p>In parallel, Cargiale resumed his contacts with Transylvanian <a href="/wiki/Intellectual" title="Intellectual">intellectuals</a>: with <a href="/wiki/George_Co%C8%99buc" title="George Coșbuc">George Coșbuc</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ioan_Slavici" title="Ioan Slavici">Ioan Slavici</a>, he founded the magazine <i><a href="/wiki/Vatra_(literary_magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vatra (literary magazine)">Vatra</a></i> (1 January 1894), before withdrawing from its leadership.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._184_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._184-143">[143]</a></sup> During his short stay, he printed an unsigned <a href="/wiki/Sketch_story" title="Sketch story">sketch story</a>, <i>Cum se înțeleg țăranii</i> ("How Peasants Communicate"), which mockingly recorded a lengthy and redundant dialog between two villagers,<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a></sup> as well as a portrait of the deceased politician <a href="/wiki/Mihail_Kog%C4%83lniceanu" title="Mihail Kogălniceanu">Mihail Kogălniceanu</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Fairy_tale" title="Fairy tale">fairy tale</a> inspired by the writings of <a href="/wiki/Anton_Pann" title="Anton Pann">Anton Pann</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup> He also translated a <a href="/wiki/Novella" title="Novella">novella</a> authored by his friend, <a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Wied" title="Elisabeth of Wied">Queen Elisabeth</a>, under the title <i>Răzbunare</i> ("Revenge")—he is known to have been annoyed by the longueurs of the piece, and struck out large portions of it to improve the flow.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>During the same period, Caragiale had the initiative to publish short fragments he had translated from classical pieces, leaving readers to guess who their authors were—Vianu, citing the speculations made by other critics, presumed that these were writers admired by both Caragiale and his friend, schoolteacher Anghel Demetrescu (<a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Alexis de Tocqueville</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay,_1st_Baron_Macaulay" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay">Thomas Babington Macaulay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">François Guizot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Nicolas_Augustin_Thierry" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacques Nicolas Augustin Thierry">Augustin Thierry</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a></sup> It was also then that he authored a piece on <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Romania" title="Ferdinand I of Romania">Prince Ferdinand</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Heir_apparent" title="Heir apparent">heir apparent</a>, who had fallen severely ill — it shows Caragiale to be a passionate defender of the <a href="/wiki/King_of_Romania" title="King of Romania">Romanian monarchy</a>, praying for Ferdinand's health. In 1898, he wrote a lengthy essay on the state of Romanian theater, in which he notably praised the actor <a href="/wiki/Ion_Brezeanu" title="Ion Brezeanu">Ion Brezeanu</a>, who made his name through portrayals of Caragiale's characters, for, among others, his "sober and refined interpretation".<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._184_143-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._184-143">[143]</a></sup> Later that year, he published a new novella, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%8En_vreme_de_r%C4%83zboi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="În vreme de război (page does not exist)">În vreme de război</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Fantasy" title="Fantasy">fantasy</a> set to the background of the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)">Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._38_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._38-146">[146]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Radical_Party">Radical Party</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>In 1895, at the age of 43, Caragiale decided to join the Radical Party, led at the time by former <i>Junimist</i> <a href="/wiki/George_Panu" title="George Panu">George Panu</a>; one year later, he began contributing to its mouthpiece, the newspaper <i><a href="/wiki/Ziua" title="Ziua">Ziua</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a></sup> He was also briefly associated with the newspaper <i>Sara</i>, published in <a href="/wiki/Ia%C8%99i" title="Iași">Iași</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a></sup> Despite this, Caragiale was again an associate of the National Liberals later the same year, when the Conservative cabinet of <a href="/wiki/Lasc%C4%83r_Catargiu" title="Lascăr Catargiu">Lascăr Catargiu</a> was replaced with one led by <a href="/wiki/Dimitrie_Sturdza" title="Dimitrie Sturdza">Dimitrie Sturdza</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a></sup> Articles he contributed to <i>Gazeta Poporului</i>, a National Liberal newspaper, were centered on new attacks against <i>Junimea</i> and were signed with the pseudonyms <i>i</i> and <i>Ion</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a></sup> In mid-November 1895, <i>Gazeta Poporului</i> published an unsigned article which discussed the suicide of writer <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Odobescu" title="Alexandru Odobescu">Alexandru Odobescu</a>, investigating the mundane reasons behind it—the piece is generally attributed to Caragiale.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a></sup> The writer placed the blame for Odobescu's death on his much younger lover, Hortensia Racoviță, and hailed his wife, Sașa Odobescu, as a model of devoted womanhood.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a></sup>
</p><p>This episode of his life coincided with a period when relations between Romania and <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> were extremely tense. Three years before, <a href="/wiki/Romanians" title="Romanians">ethnic Romanian</a> leaders in Austro-Hungarian-ruled Transylvania had signed the <i><a href="/wiki/Transylvanian_Memorandum" title="Transylvanian Memorandum">Transylvanian Memorandum</a></i>, which inflamed passions among the Hungarians and led the authors to be indicted. <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(Romania,_1880%E2%80%931918)" title="Conservative Party (Romania, 1880–1918)">Conservative Party</a> politicians in Romania had succeeded in negotiating an <a href="/wiki/Amnesty" title="Amnesty">amnesty</a>, but their policies were overturned by the National Liberals, who appealed to nationalist and <a href="/wiki/Irredentism" title="Irredentism">irredentist</a> sentiment.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Thus, Sturdza offered a measure of support to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eugen_Brote&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eugen Brote (page does not exist)">Eugen Brote</a>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribuna_(Romania)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tribuna (Romania) (page does not exist)">Tribuna</a></i> editor and <a href="/wiki/National_Romanian_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="National Romanian Party">National Romanian Party</a> activist. Brote, who fled Transylvania and planned to directly implicate the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania">Romanian Kingdom</a> into the conflict, attempted to replace the pro-Conservative leadership of the National Party with a selection of politicians favored by the National Liberals.<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._24_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._24-153">[153]</a></sup> As Sturdza came to lead the cabinet, both he and Brote retracted their previous statements, but again provoked the National Party by alleging that its leaders were the actual radicals.<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._24_153-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._24-153">[153]</a></sup> In harsh terms, Caragiale exposed the understanding Sturdza had with Brote.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a></sup> Soon after, he authored a short story about a con artist who traveled to the imagined Transylvanian town of Opidul-nou, posing as the nationalist Romanian writer <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Vlahu%C8%9B%C4%83" title="Alexandru Vlahuță">Alexandru Vlahuță</a> as a means to live off the local <a href="/wiki/Intelligentsia" title="Intelligentsia">intelligentsia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a></sup> In October 1897, he was outraged by news that Sturdza had given in to Austro-Hungarian demands, and that he had expelled Transylvanian nationalists from Romania: Caragiale held a speech in which he argued that Romanians living abroad were "indispensable" to the Romanian state.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Epoca"><i>Epoca</i></span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Const_Jiquidi_-_Caragiale_leaving_Epoca.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Const_Jiquidi_-_Caragiale_leaving_Epoca.jpg/220px-Const_Jiquidi_-_Caragiale_leaving_Epoca.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Const_Jiquidi_-_Caragiale_leaving_Epoca.jpg/330px-Const_Jiquidi_-_Caragiale_leaving_Epoca.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Const_Jiquidi_-_Caragiale_leaving_Epoca.jpg/440px-Const_Jiquidi_-_Caragiale_leaving_Epoca.jpg 2x" data-file-width="618" data-file-height="927" /></a><figcaption>Caragiale as a traveler, parting with <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epoca_(Romania)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epoca (Romania) (page does not exist)">Epoca</a></i> (1890s caricature by Constantin Jiquidi)</figcaption></figure>
<p>In 1895, the writer followed the Radical group into its unusual merger with the Conservative Party.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a></sup> This came at a time of unified opposition, when the <i>Junimists</i> themselves returned to their group of origin.<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._24_153-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._24-153">[153]</a></sup> Caragiale came to identify with the policies endorsed by a new group of Conservative leaders, <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Filipescu" title="Nicolae Filipescu">Nicolae Filipescu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Lahovari" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandru Lahovari">Alexandru Lahovari</a> among them.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a></sup> He was upset when Lahovari died not too long after, and authored his <a href="/wiki/Obituary" title="Obituary">obituary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a></sup>
</p><p>Caragiale also became a collaborator on Filipescu's journal <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epoca_(Romania)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epoca (Romania) (page does not exist)">Epoca</a></i> and editor of its literary supplement.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a></sup> A chronicle he contributed at the time discussed the philosophical writings of Dobrogeanu-Gherea: while sympathetic to his conclusions, Caragiale made a clear statement that he was not interested in the socialist doctrine or any other ideology ("Any idea, opinion or system is absolutely irrelevant to me, in the most absolute sense").<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._186_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._186-161">[161]</a></sup> He also published an article criticizing Dimitrie Sturdza; its title, <i>O lichea</i> (roughly: "A Scoundrel"), was reluctantly accepted by <i>Epoca</i>, and only after Caragiale claimed that it reflected the original meaning of the word <i>lichea</i> ("stain"), explaining that it referred to Sturdza's unusual persistence in politics.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a></sup>
</p><p>When answering to one of <i>Epoca'</i>s inquiries, he showed that he had yet again come to reevaluate <i>Junimea</i>, and found it to be an essential institution in Romanian culture.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._186_161-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._186-161">[161]</a></sup> Nevertheless, he was distancing himself from the purest <i>Junimist</i> tenets, and took a favorable view of <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic</a> writers whom the society had criticized or ridiculed — among these, he indicated his personal rival <a href="/wiki/Bogdan_Petriceicu_Hasdeu" title="Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu">Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu</a>, whom he acknowledged to be among "the most remarkable figures of our literature", and <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Odobescu" title="Alexandru Odobescu">Alexandru Odobescu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._186_161-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._186-161">[161]</a></sup> As editor of <i>Epoca</i>, he published works by Hasdeu alongside those of his other contemporaries and predecessors — <a href="/wiki/Grigore_Alexandrescu" title="Grigore Alexandrescu">Grigore Alexandrescu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Filimon" title="Nicolae Filimon">Nicolae Filimon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dinicu_Golescu" title="Dinicu Golescu">Dinicu Golescu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ion_Heliade_R%C4%83dulescu" title="Ion Heliade Rădulescu">Ion Heliade Rădulescu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cilibi_Moise" title="Cilibi Moise">Cilibi Moise</a>, <a href="/wiki/Costache_Negruzzi" class="mw-redirect" title="Costache Negruzzi">Costache Negruzzi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anton_Pann" title="Anton Pann">Anton Pann</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a></sup> He also took a more sympathetic but still distant view of Maiorescu.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._186_161-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._186-161">[161]</a></sup> At the time, he befriended the young poet <a href="/wiki/Cincinat_Pavelescu" title="Cincinat Pavelescu">Cincinat Pavelescu</a>, and helped to promote his works in the press.<sup id="cite_ref-cpavelescu_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cpavelescu-164">[164]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Universul"><i>Universul</i></span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Around that time, Caragiale began collaborating with the formerly <i>Junimist</i> figure <a href="/wiki/Mihail_Dragomirescu" title="Mihail Dragomirescu">Mihail Dragomirescu</a>, who enlisted his anonymous contributions to the magazine <i>Convorbiri Critice</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a></sup> Again pressed by financial problems, he returned to a bureaucratic post—this time with the administration of <a href="/wiki/Government_monopoly" class="mw-redirect" title="Government monopoly">government monopolies</a>, and appointed by the Conservative cabinet of <a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_Grigore_Cantacuzino" title="Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino">Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino</a> in June 1899.<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a></sup> In 1901, the position was suppressed due to cutbacks in budget spending.<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a></sup> This coincided with Sturdza's third mandate as <a href="/wiki/List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Prime Ministers of Romania">Premier</a>, and further aggravated the conflict between the two figures.<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>At the same time, Caragiale was contributing to Luigi Cazzavillan's newly founded daily, <i><a href="/wiki/Universul" title="Universul">Universul</a></i>, where he was assigned the column "Notițe critice" ("Critical Notes").<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_pg._187_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_pg._187-168">[168]</a></sup> This material formed the bulk of his collected short prose volume, <i>Momente și schițe</i>, and notably comprised satirical pieces ridiculing the Romanian press' reaction to the activities of <a href="/wiki/Boris_Sarafov" title="Boris Sarafov">Boris Sarafov</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(region)" title="Macedonia (region)">Macedonian</a>-<a href="/wiki/Bulgarians" title="Bulgarians">Bulgarian</a> revolutionary who had attempted to set up a base in Romania.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>He continued to pursue a business career, and, in 1901, inaugurated his own company, <i>Berăria cooperativă</i>, which took over the <i>Gambrinus</i> pub in front of the National Theater.<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mîndra,_p_p._184_138-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mîndra,_p_p._184-138">[138]</a></sup> It soon became the site of a literary circle, which included, among others, Tony Bacalbașa and Ion Brezeanu, the satirist Dumitru Constantinescu-Teleormăneanu (known as <i>Teleor</i>), and the academic I. Suchianu.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._184_143-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._184-143">[143]</a></sup> At the time, the Caragiales rented a house in Bucharest, near the present-day <a href="/wiki/Bulevardul_Magheru" title="Bulevardul Magheru">Bulevardul Magheru</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-adevcasele_29-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adevcasele-29">[29]</a></sup>
</p><p>In early 1901, as Ion Luca Caragiale entered his 25th year in literature, his friends offered him a <a href="/wiki/Banquet" title="Banquet">banquet</a> at <i>Gambrinus</i>, where speeches were given by <a href="/wiki/Barbu_%C8%98tef%C4%83nescu_Delavrancea" title="Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea">Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea</a> and the Conservative politician <a href="/wiki/Take_Ionescu" title="Take Ionescu">Take Ionescu</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a></sup> and where a special single-issue magazine, <i>Caragiale</i>, was circulated among the guests.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a></sup> Hasdeu put aside his differences in opinion and sent in a congratulatory letter.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a></sup> In it, he deemed the dramatist "Romania's <a href="/wiki/Moli%C3%A8re" title="Molière">Molière</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a></sup> Nevertheless, on 23 March 1902, the National Liberal majority in the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Academy" title="Romanian Academy">Romanian Academy</a>, headed by Sturdza, refused to consider <i>Momente și schițe</i> for the Năsturel Herăscu Award<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a></sup> — despite a favorable report from <a href="/wiki/Dimitrie_C._Oll%C4%83nescu-Ascanio" title="Dimitrie C. Ollănescu-Ascanio">Dimitrie C. Ollănescu-Ascanio</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._124_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._124-174">[174]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Caion_scandal">Caion scandal</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ion_Luca_Caragiale_-_Foto04.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Ion_Luca_Caragiale_-_Foto04.jpg/220px-Ion_Luca_Caragiale_-_Foto04.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Ion_Luca_Caragiale_-_Foto04.jpg/330px-Ion_Luca_Caragiale_-_Foto04.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Ion_Luca_Caragiale_-_Foto04.jpg 2x" data-file-width="340" data-file-height="425" /></a><figcaption>Caragiale in 1899</figcaption></figure>
<p>Soon after, Caragiale became involved in a major literary scandal. <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Al._Ionescu-Caion" title="Constantin Al. Ionescu-Caion">Constantin Al. Ionescu-Caion</a>, a journalist and student whom <a href="/wiki/Tudor_Vianu" title="Tudor Vianu">Tudor Vianu</a> described as "a real pathological character", issued a claim that, in his <i>Năpasta</i>, the Romanian dramatist had <a href="/wiki/Plagiarism" title="Plagiarism">plagiarized</a> the work of a <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a> author, István Kemény.<sup id="cite_ref-danmanuca_11-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danmanuca-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_pp._188,_373_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_pp._188,_373-175">[175]</a></sup> Caion expanded on this in articles published by <i>Revista Literară</i>, where he provided direct comparisons between the two texts.<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_pp._188,_373_175-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_pp._188,_373-175">[175]</a></sup> This was received with enthusiasm by Caragiale's old rival, <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Macedonski" title="Alexandru Macedonski">Alexandru Macedonski</a>, who publicized the controversy through one of his journals, <i>Forța Morală</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a></sup> Initially amazed by the similarity between the two texts, Caragiale carried out his own investigations, and, in the end, discovered that neither the writing nor Kemény had ever existed.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a></sup> Employing Ștefănescu Delavrancea as his lawyer, he brought Caion to trial: a court sentenced Caion for <a href="/wiki/Calumny" class="mw-redirect" title="Calumny">calumny</a>, but he was <a href="/wiki/Acquittal" title="Acquittal">acquitted</a> after an <a href="/wiki/Appeal" title="Appeal">appeal</a> in June 1902.<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a></sup> Several commentators believe that this was owed to a strong National Liberal presence among members of the jury.<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._124_174-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._124-174">[174]</a></sup> During the retrial, Caion retracted all his previous claims, and instead argued that <i>Năpasta</i> plagiarized <a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Power_of_Darkness" title="The Power of Darkness">The Power of Darkness</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a></sup>
</p><p>Macedonski supported the lost cause until the very end, and refused to distance himself from Caion even as the latter admitted to the court that he had invented the story.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a></sup> His magazine also accused Caragiale of having copied <a href="/wiki/Victorien_Sardou" title="Victorien Sardou">Victorien Sardou</a>'s <i>Rabagas</i> for his <i><a href="/wiki/O_scrisoare_pierdut%C4%83" title="O scrisoare pierdută">O scrisoare pierdută</a></i>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Henri_Chivot" title="Henri Chivot">Henri Chivot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Duru" title="Alfred Duru">Alfred Duru</a>'s <i>Le Carnaval d'un Merle Blanc</i> in <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=D-ale_carnavalului&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="D-ale carnavalului (page does not exist)">D-ale carnavalului</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a></sup> In one memorable incident of 14 February 1902, while he was hosting a literary festivity at the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Athenaeum" title="Romanian Athenaeum">Bucharest Athenaeum</a>, Macedonski was heckled<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a></sup> and responded by blowing a whistle.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._374_183-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._374-183">[183]</a></sup> <i>Forța Morală</i> was shut down soon after this episode.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._374_183-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._374-183">[183]</a></sup> In parallel, the National Theater offered Caragiale a degree of satisfaction, when it decided to showcase <i>Rabagas</i>, leaving the public to see that it was only remotely similar to his play.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the wake of the scandal, Caragiale attempted to resume contacts with Maiorescu, and visited him several times. His former mentor was reticent, and finally rejected the offer for reconciliation – writing in his diary, he defined Caragiale's attempts as "apple-polishings" and <i>paradări</i> ("affectations").<sup id="cite_ref-Ornea,_p._200_85-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ornea,_p._200-85">[85]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Move_to_Berlin">Move to Berlin</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Having gained access to the Momulo Cardini inheritance, Caragiale became a rather wealthy man.<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-danmanuca_11-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danmanuca-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/%C8%98erban_Cioculescu" title="Șerban Cioculescu">Șerban Cioculescu</a>, the writer soon lost most of the funds earned, transferring them to <a href="/wiki/Mateiu_Caragiale" title="Mateiu Caragiale">Mateiu Caragiale</a> and his mother, but was again made rich by the death of his sister Lenci in autumn 1905—she left him the administrator of 160,000 <a href="/wiki/Romanian_leu" title="Romanian leu">lei</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a></sup> The latter event caused tensions between Mateiu and his father—Caragiale-son believed that he had been cheated out of the inheritance, and was angered by Ion Luca's decision to stop subsidizing him after he failed to complete his studies.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a></sup>
</p><p>He was by then enchanted with the idea of moving into a <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western</a> or <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central European</a> country, where he hoped to lead a more comfortable life and be closer to the centers of culture.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a></sup> He was especially interested in gaining easier access to the major stages for <a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">classical music</a>, as a means to satisfy his desire for quality in that field<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._188_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._188-105">[105]</a></sup> (he had by then come to adore the compositions of <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Ludwig van Beethoven</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a></sup> According to Tudor Vianu, Caragiale was also showing signs that he was about to enter a vaguely <a href="/wiki/Misanthropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Misanthropic">misanthropic</a> phase of his life.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._188_105-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._188-105">[105]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1903–1904, the Caragiales traveled through various European countries, while the dramatist again considered establishing his residence in Transylvania.<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._308_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._308-190">[190]</a></sup> They eventually moved to <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Imperial German</a> capital, settling down in spring 1905.<sup id="cite_ref-danmanuca_11-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danmanuca-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a></sup> The choice was considered unusual, since the writer knew only some basic <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> expressions.<sup id="cite_ref-blagarol_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blagarol-192">[192]</a></sup> This has led some commentators to speculate that the move was politically motivated. <a href="/wiki/Mihail_Dragomirescu" title="Mihail Dragomirescu">Mihail Dragomirescu</a> believed that Caragiale was living at the expense of the German state.<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._308_190-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._308-190">[190]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-blagarol_192-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blagarol-192">[192]</a></sup> Cioculescu rejected this assessment, arguing that it relied on hearsay and pointing out that the chronological order provided by Dragomirescu was inaccurate.<sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a></sup> In 1992, historian Georgeta Ene proposed that Caragiale was acting as a spy for Romania in Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-blagarol_192-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blagarol-192">[192]</a></sup>
</p><p>The family lived in an apartment in <a href="/wiki/Wilmersdorf" title="Wilmersdorf">Wilmersdorf</a> and later at a villa in <a href="/wiki/Sch%C3%B6neberg" title="Schöneberg">Schöneberg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-blagarol_192-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blagarol-192">[192]</a></sup> Paraphrasing a Romanian proverb which speaks of "the black bread of exile", the dramatist jokingly referred to his relocation as "the white loaf" (<i>franzela albă a surghiunului</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a></sup> He did not however isolate himself completely, becoming very close to the group of Romanian students attending the <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">University of Berlin</a> and to other young people: among them were poet and essayist <a href="/wiki/Panait_Cerna" title="Panait Cerna">Panait Cerna</a>, sociologist <a href="/wiki/Dimitrie_Gusti" title="Dimitrie Gusti">Dimitrie Gusti</a>, musician <a href="/wiki/Florica_Musicescu" title="Florica Musicescu">Florica Musicescu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Dobrogeanu-Gherea" title="Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea">Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea</a>'s son-in-law, the literary critic <a href="/wiki/Paul_Zarifopol" title="Paul Zarifopol">Paul Zarifopol</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-blagarol_192-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blagarol-192">[192]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a></sup> Caragiale was also close to the linguist <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Weigand" title="Gustav Weigand">Gustav Weigand</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a></sup> He frequently traveled to <a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a>, where he would meet with Zarifopol, as well as vacationing in <a href="/wiki/Travem%C3%BCnde" title="Travemünde">Travemünde</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-blagarol_192-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blagarol-192">[192]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a></sup> In 1906, together with Zarifopol, he visited Beethoven's house in <a href="/wiki/Bonn" title="Bonn">Bonn</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a></sup> He was close to the dramatist <a href="/wiki/Ronetti_Roman" title="Ronetti Roman">Ronetti Roman</a>, and, in 1908, confessed that he was devastated by news of his death.<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a></sup>
</p><p>Caragiale was also visited by <a href="/wiki/Barbu_%C8%98tef%C4%83nescu_Delavrancea" title="Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea">Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea</a>, who, as a <a href="/wiki/Francophilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Francophilia">Francophile</a>, vehemently rejected the aesthetics of Berlin in their conversations.<sup id="cite_ref-blagarol_192-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blagarol-192">[192]</a></sup> Delavrancea was accompanied by his daughter, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cella_Delvrancea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cella Delvrancea (page does not exist)">Cella</a>, a celebrated pianist.<sup id="cite_ref-blagarol_192-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blagarol-192">[192]</a></sup>
</p><p>He also traveled back into Romania for intervals—when in <a href="/wiki/Ia%C8%99i" title="Iași">Iași</a>, he associated with the maverick Conservative <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_B%C4%83d%C4%83r%C4%83u" title="Alexandru Bădărău">Alexandru Bădărău</a> and his journal <i>Opinia</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a></sup> He had closely followed Bădărău's career up to that point, and, in July 1906, authored an <a href="/wiki/Epigram" title="Epigram">epigram</a> on his ousting from the <a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_Grigore_Cantacuzino" title="Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino">Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino</a> Conservative cabinet—comparing Bădărău to <a href="/wiki/Jonah" title="Jonah">Jonah</a> and the Conservatives to a great fish that spat him out.<sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a></sup> A poem he published during the same year ridicules <a href="/wiki/King_of_Romania" title="King of Romania">King</a> <a href="/wiki/Carol_I_of_Romania" title="Carol I of Romania">Carol I</a> on the occasion of his fortieth year in power, while parodying the style of republican poet <a href="/wiki/N._T._Or%C4%83%C8%99anu" title="N. T. Orășanu">N. T. Orășanu</a>; without making direct references to the monarch, it features the lyrics <i>Ca rol fu mare, mititelul</i> ("Taking in view his role, he was grand, the little one"), with "ca" and "rol" spelling out his name (and thus allowing the poem to read "Carol was grand, the little one").<sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a></sup> He continued to publish various works in several other newspapers and magazines, including various Tranylvanian papers and the Iași-based <i><a href="/wiki/Via%C8%9Ba_Rom%C3%A2neasc%C4%83" title="Viața Românească">Viața Românească</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>His subsequent work comprised mostly correspondence with other literary figures, such as Dobrogeanu-Gherea, Mihail Dragomirescu, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alceu_Urechia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alceu Urechia (page does not exist)">Alceu Urechia</a>, and Zarifopol.<sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a></sup> He was also in touch with psychologist and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Constantin_R%C4%83dulescu-Motru" title="Constantin Rădulescu-Motru">Constantin Rădulescu-Motru</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a></sup> At the time, Caragiale planned to start work on <i>Titircă, Sotirescu et C-ie</i>, meaning to combine the characters of his two most successful comedies (<i><a href="/wiki/O_noapte_furtunoas%C4%83" class="mw-redirect" title="O noapte furtunoasă">O noapte furtunoasă</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/O_scrisoare_pierdut%C4%83" title="O scrisoare pierdută">O scrisoare pierdută</a></i>) into one play—this was never accomplished.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifpubl_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifpubl-22">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-205" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="1907">1907</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>In 1907, Caragiale was shaken by the outbreak and violent repression of the <a href="/wiki/1907_Romanian_Peasants%27_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="1907 Romanian Peasants' Revolt">Romanian Peasants' Revolt</a>, and decided to write a lengthy essay, in which he condemned the agrarian policies of both National Liberal and Conservative governments from a <a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">patriotic</a> perspective.<sup id="cite_ref-danmanuca_11-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danmanuca-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-206" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a></sup> According to Vianu, the resulting <i>1907, din primăvară până în toamnă</i> ("1907, From Spring to Autumn") was, alongside earlier essays by Eminescu and Maiorescu, the most important works of social analysis to be written by that generation.<sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a></sup>
</p><p>The essay, written in harsh tones, listed what Caragiale saw as the major social problems tolerated by Romanian administrations: he discussed the landowning class, successor to the <a href="/wiki/Boyar" title="Boyar">boyars</a>, having maintained as much possible from the legacy of <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a>; he noted that, while the commerce was dominated by foreigners, the administration was gripped by a no longer aristocratic <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a> and its far-reaching <a href="/wiki/Political_machine" title="Political machine">political machine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-208" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a></sup> As several commentators noted, many of the topics brought up by Caragiale built on the critical overview adopted by <i>Junimea</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-209" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a></sup> To the social and political problems, the text offered a <a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">monarchist</a> solution—Caragiale expected Carol I to carry out a <i><a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'état</a></i> against the Romanian political establishment, replacing the <a href="/wiki/1866_Constitution_of_Romania" title="1866 Constitution of Romania">Constitution of 1866</a>, which left some room for <a href="/wiki/Privilege_(legal_ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Privilege (legal ethics)">privilege</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Census_suffrage" class="mw-redirect" title="Census suffrage">census suffrage</a>, with a more <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democratic</a> one.<sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a></sup>
</p><p><i>1907, din primăvară până în toamnă</i>, first published in <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> under the pseudonym <i>Ein rumänische Patriot</i> ("A Romanian patriot"), was originally hosted by the <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>-based newspaper <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Die_Zeit_(Austria)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Die Zeit (Austria) (page does not exist)">Die Zeit</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-danmanuca_11-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danmanuca-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a></sup> The translation had been completed by his friend <a href="/wiki/Mite_Kremnitz" title="Mite Kremnitz">Mite Kremnitz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-212" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a></sup> In its original, the work was later printed under Caragiale's signature by the <a href="/wiki/Left-wing" class="mw-redirect" title="Left-wing">left-wing</a> Romanian journal <i><a href="/wiki/Adev%C4%83rul" title="Adevărul">Adevărul</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a></sup> The author had agreed to make himself known after <i>Die Zeit</i> reached Romania and had caused the local press to wonder who had condemned the system in such harsh words.<sup id="cite_ref-214" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a></sup>
</p><p>The brochure attracted instantaneous attention in his native country, and its success was notable: it sold around 13,000 copies.<sup id="cite_ref-215" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a></sup> There were notable differences between the two versions, which were the result of Caragiale's answer to criticism and suggestions from <a href="/wiki/Christian_Rakovsky" title="Christian Rakovsky">Christian Rakovsky</a>, a prominent <a href="/wiki/Proletarian_internationalism" title="Proletarian internationalism">internationalist</a> socialist who had been expelled from Romania early in the year.<sup id="cite_ref-216" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a></sup> Caragiale elaborated on some of the essay's themes in a series of <a href="/wiki/Fable" title="Fable">fables</a> he published soon after.<sup id="cite_ref-217" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a></sup>
</p><p>This chain of events prompted <a href="/wiki/Barbu_%C8%98tef%C4%83nescu_Delavrancea" title="Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea">Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea</a> to offer him a position in the Conservative Party, as a means to reform the system from within.<sup id="cite_ref-218" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a></sup> Caragiale rejected the offer: by then, he had grown disillusioned with the traditional political groupings, and had decided to sever all his links with them.<sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a></sup> Instead, in 1908, he joined the <a href="/wiki/Conservative-Democratic_Party" title="Conservative-Democratic Party">Conservative-Democratic Party</a>, a rising force of the entrepreneurial <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Take_Ionescu" title="Take Ionescu">Take Ionescu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-220" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a></sup> He briefly returned to Romania several times after 1908, campaigning in favor of the Ionescu and being himself proposed for a seat in the <a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_of_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Chamber of Deputies of Romania">Chamber of Deputies</a> (before the Conservative-Democrats decided another person was more suited for the position).<sup id="cite_ref-221" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a></sup> His involvement in politics engendered a collateral conflict with his son Mateiu, after the latter expressed a wish to become part of the administration (a project ridiculed by Caragiale-father).<sup id="cite_ref-222" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a></sup>
</p><p>In December 1907, after <i>Opinia</i> became a mouthpiece of Ionescu's party, Caragiale received news that its headquarters had been vandalized by <a href="/wiki/A._C._Cuza" title="A. C. Cuza">A. C. Cuza</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalist</a> supporters (who were students at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Ia%C8%99i" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Iași">University of Iași</a>). Just days after, when Cuza's group offered to host a Caragiale festival, he refused to participate, citing his respect for the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">freedom of the press</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-223" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a></sup> It was also during the period that he published his <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Din_carnetul_unui_vechi_sufleur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Din carnetul unui vechi sufleur (page does not exist)">Din carnetul unui vechi sufleur</a></i>, grouping short pieces about cultural figures such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Iorgu_Caragiale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Iorgu Caragiale (page does not exist)">Iorgu Caragiale</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pantazi_Ghica" title="Pantazi Ghica">Pantazi Ghica</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Matei_Millo" title="Matei Millo">Matei Millo</a>.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Final_years">Final years</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexandru_Davila_si_Ion_Luca_Caragiale.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Alexandru_Davila_si_Ion_Luca_Caragiale.jpg/220px-Alexandru_Davila_si_Ion_Luca_Caragiale.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Alexandru_Davila_si_Ion_Luca_Caragiale.jpg/330px-Alexandru_Davila_si_Ion_Luca_Caragiale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Alexandru_Davila_si_Ion_Luca_Caragiale.jpg/440px-Alexandru_Davila_si_Ion_Luca_Caragiale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="741" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Davila" title="Alexandru Davila">Alexandru Davila</a> and Ion Luca Caragiale</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ion_Luca_Caragiale_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Ion_Luca_Caragiale_2.jpg/220px-Ion_Luca_Caragiale_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="339" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Ion_Luca_Caragiale_2.jpg/330px-Ion_Luca_Caragiale_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Ion_Luca_Caragiale_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="439" data-file-height="677" /></a><figcaption>Ion Luca Caragiale c. 1912</figcaption></figure>
<p>Beginning in 1909, Caragiale resumed his contributions to <i><a href="/wiki/Universul" title="Universul">Universul</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-224" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a></sup> The same year, his <a href="/wiki/Fantasy_literature" title="Fantasy literature">fantasy</a> piece <i><a href="/wiki/Kir_Ianulea" title="Kir Ianulea">Kir Ianulea</a></i>, which explored the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Bucharest" title="History of Bucharest">history of Bucharest</a> during the early 19th century and the late stages of the <a href="/wiki/Phanariotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phanariotes">Phanariote</a> period, was published by <i><a href="/wiki/Via%C8%9Ba_Rom%C3%A2neasc%C4%83" title="Viața Românească">Viața Românească</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a></sup> The novella partly built on <i><a href="/wiki/Belfagor_arcidiavolo" title="Belfagor arcidiavolo">Belfagor arcidiavolo</a></i>, by <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_literature" title="Renaissance literature">Renaissance</a> author <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a></sup> and was occasionally classified as an example of <a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">historical fiction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup> Similar stories use themes from the <i><a href="/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">One Thousand and One Nights</a></i> (<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu-Hasan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abu-Hasan (page does not exist)">Abu-Hasan</a></i>) and popular anecdotes (<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pastram%C4%83_trufanda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pastramă trufanda (page does not exist)">Pastramă trufanda</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Călinescu,_p._181_227-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Călinescu,_p._181-227">[227]</a></sup> Another work of the time was <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Calul_dracului&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Calul dracului (page does not exist)">Calul dracului</a></i>, a rural-themed account of demonic temptation, which Vianu called "one of the most perfect short stories to have been written in Romanian language".<sup id="cite_ref-228" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a></sup>
</p><p>His last collection of writings, titled <i>Schițe nouă</i> ("New Sketches") saw print in 1910.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mîndra,_p._25_229-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mîndra,_p._25-229">[229]</a></sup> During that period, after giving endorsement to a project outlined by his fellow dramatist <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Davila" title="Alexandru Davila">Alexandru Davila</a>, he aided in the creation of a new privately run Bucharest theater, and recorded its inauguration in his <a href="/wiki/Reportage" class="mw-redirect" title="Reportage">reportage</a> <i>Începem</i> ("We Begin").<sup id="cite_ref-Mîndra,_p._25_229-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mîndra,_p._25-229">[229]</a></sup>
</p><p>By that time, Ion Luca Caragiale became remarkably close to a new generation of ethnic Romanian intellectuals in <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>. In 1909, he recalled the union of the two <a href="/wiki/Danubian_Principalities" title="Danubian Principalities">Danubian Principalities</a> under <a href="/wiki/Alexander_John_Cuza" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander John Cuza">Alexander John Cuza</a>, and predicted the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Transylvania_with_Romania" title="Union of Transylvania with Romania">union of Transylvania with Romania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-230" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a></sup> He visited <a href="/wiki/Budapest" title="Budapest">Budapest</a> to meet with Transylvanian students at the <a href="/wiki/E%C3%B6tv%C3%B6s_Lor%C3%A1nd_University" title="Eötvös Loránd University">local university</a>, and was the subject of a <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a> thesis authored by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Horia_Petra-Petrescu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Horia Petra-Petrescu (page does not exist)">Horia Petra-Petrescu</a> (which was also the first <a href="/wiki/Monograph" title="Monograph">monograph</a> on his work).<sup id="cite_ref-231" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a></sup> He decided to support the poet and activist <a href="/wiki/Octavian_Goga" title="Octavian Goga">Octavian Goga</a>, who, after questioning ethnic policies in <a href="/wiki/Transleithania" class="mw-redirect" title="Transleithania">Transleithania</a>, had been jailed by <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Hungarian</a> authorities—writing for <i>Universul</i>, Caragiale stressed that such persecutions carried the risk of escalating tensions in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-232" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a></sup> Later, he visited Goga in <a href="/wiki/Szeged" title="Szeged">Szeged</a>, where he was serving time in jail.<sup id="cite_ref-233" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caragiale_grave.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Caragiale_grave.jpg/220px-Caragiale_grave.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Caragiale_grave.jpg/330px-Caragiale_grave.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Caragiale_grave.jpg/440px-Caragiale_grave.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Caragiale's grave in the <a href="/wiki/Bellu_cemetery" class="mw-redirect" title="Bellu cemetery">Bellu cemetery</a> (flanked by those of <a href="/wiki/Mihai_Ralea" title="Mihai Ralea">Mihai Ralea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Traian_S%C4%83vulescu" title="Traian Săvulescu">Traian Săvulescu</a>)</figcaption></figure>
<p>Caragiale also contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Arad,_Romania" title="Arad, Romania">Arad</a>-based journal <i>Românul</i>, becoming friends with other Romanian activists—<a href="/wiki/Aurel_Popovici" title="Aurel Popovici">Aurel Popovici</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Vaida-Voevod" title="Alexandru Vaida-Voevod">Alexandru Vaida-Voevod</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vasile_Goldi%C8%99" title="Vasile Goldiș">Vasile Goldiș</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-enemagist_6-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enemagist-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-234" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a></sup> His articles expressed support for the <a href="/wiki/National_Romanian_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="National Romanian Party">National Romanian Party</a>, calling for its adversaries at <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribuna_(Romania)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tribuna (Romania) (page does not exist)">Tribuna</a></i> to abandon their dissident politics.<sup id="cite_ref-235" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a></sup> In August 1911, he was present in <a href="/wiki/Blaj" title="Blaj">Blaj</a>, where the cultural association <a href="/wiki/Asocia%C8%9Bia_Transilvan%C4%83_pentru_Literatura_Rom%C3%A2n%C4%83_%C8%99i_Cultura_Poporului_Rom%C3%A2n" class="mw-redirect" title="Asociația Transilvană pentru Literatura Română și Cultura Poporului Român">ASTRA</a> was celebrating its 50th year.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._192_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._192-34">[34]</a></sup> Caragiale also witnessed one of the first aviation flights, that of the Romanian Transylvanian pioneer <a href="/wiki/Aurel_Vlaicu" title="Aurel Vlaicu">Aurel Vlaicu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._192_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._192-34">[34]</a></sup> In January 1912, as he turned 60, Caragiale declined taking part in the formal celebration organized by <a href="/wiki/Emil_G%C3%A2rleanu" title="Emil Gârleanu">Emil Gârleanu</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Writers%27_Society" title="Romanian Writers' Society">Romanian Writers' Society</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-236" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a></sup> Caragiale had previously rejected <a href="/wiki/Constantin_R%C4%83dulescu-Motru" title="Constantin Rădulescu-Motru">Constantin Rădulescu-Motru</a>'s offer to carry out a public subscription in his favor, arguing that he could not accept such financial gains.<sup id="cite_ref-237" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a></sup>
</p><p>He died suddenly at his home in Berlin, very soon after returning from his trip.<sup id="cite_ref-238" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a></sup> The cause of death was indicated as <a href="/wiki/Myocardial_infarction" title="Myocardial infarction">myocardial infarction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mîndra,_p._25_229-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mîndra,_p._25-229">[229]</a></sup> His son <a href="/wiki/Luca_Caragiale" title="Luca Caragiale">Luca</a> recounted that, on that very night, Caragiale-father was rereading <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Macbeth" title="Macbeth">Macbeth</a></i>, which he found to be a moving narrative.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._195_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._195-20">[20]</a></sup>
</p><p>Caragiale's body was transported to Bucharest in a freight train, which lost its way on the tracks and arrived with a major delay.<sup id="cite_ref-blagarol_192-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blagarol-192">[192]</a></sup> He was eventually buried in <a href="/wiki/Bellu_cemetery" class="mw-redirect" title="Bellu cemetery">Bellu cemetery</a> on 22 November 1912.<sup id="cite_ref-blagarol_192-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blagarol-192">[192]</a></sup> His longtime rival <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Macedonski" title="Alexandru Macedonski">Alexandru Macedonski</a> was saddened by the news of his death, and, in a letter to <i><a href="/wiki/Adev%C4%83rul" title="Adevărul">Adevărul</a></i>, argued that he preferred Caragiale's humor to that of the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">American</a> <a href="/wiki/Mark_Twain" title="Mark Twain">Mark Twain</a>, stressing that "[we] attacked each other often because we loved each other a lot."<sup id="cite_ref-239" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Style_and_cultural_tenets">Style and cultural tenets</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>According to <a href="/wiki/Tudor_Vianu" title="Tudor Vianu">Tudor Vianu</a>, Caragiale's writings signify "the highest expression" of Romanian theatre, mirroring and complimenting the contribution <a href="/wiki/Mihai_Eminescu" title="Mihai Eminescu">Mihai Eminescu</a> had to Romanian-language poetry.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._175_240-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._175-240">[240]</a></sup> Vianu nonetheless pointed out the immense difference in style and approach between the Eminescu and Caragiale, noting that, to Eminescu's <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> interests and "<a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic</a> genius", the dramatist opposed his "great classical and realist endowment, a social, voluble and <a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">epicurean</a> nature".<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._175_240-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._175-240">[240]</a></sup>
</p><p>Critics and historians place Caragiale's style midway between the delayed <a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a> of 19th century <a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Romania">Romanian literature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Literary_realism" title="Literary realism">Realism</a> (with its <i><a href="/wiki/Fin_de_si%C3%A8cle" title="Fin de siècle">fin de siècle</a></i> development, <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(literature)" title="Naturalism (literature)">Naturalism</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-241" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a></sup> The writer, who abided by the <a href="/wiki/Classical_unities" title="Classical unities">classical unities</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-242" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a></sup> rejected Romantic tenets, and, as early as the 1870s, opposed the <a href="/wiki/Lyricism" title="Lyricism">lyricism</a> present in the dramas of <a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Victor Hugo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Friedrich Schiller</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-243" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">Neoclassicism</a> in his works is further enhanced in his drama and comedies by his adherence to <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Scribe" title="Eugène Scribe">Eugène Scribe</a>'s principles (<i>see <a href="/wiki/Well-made_play" title="Well-made play">Well-made play</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._I,_p._310_244-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._I,_p._310-244">[244]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Zarifopol" title="Paul Zarifopol">Paul Zarifopol</a> argued that, for most of his life, Caragiale, the opponent of <a href="/wiki/Didacticism" title="Didacticism">didacticism</a>, advocated Maiorescu's principles of <a href="/wiki/Art_for_art%27s_sake" title="Art for art's sake">art for art's sake</a>. He often sketched out alternative endings to his stories, and selected the ones he felt came most natural. Nevertheless, Zarifopol also noted that, late in his life, the writer contemplated adding a didactic message to one of his writings, which was to remain unfinished.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>His role in the Romanian context was likened to those of <a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_de_Balzac" title="Honoré de Balzac">Honoré de Balzac</a> in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Dickens" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Gogol" title="Nikolai Gogol">Nikolai Gogol</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifpubl_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifpubl-22">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-245" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a></sup> Literary critic <a href="/wiki/Pompiliu_Constantinescu" title="Pompiliu Constantinescu">Pompiliu Constantinescu</a> credited Caragiale's sense of irony with having corrected the tendencies of his day, and, through this, with helping create an urban literature.<sup id="cite_ref-246" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a></sup> Caragiale's interest in Realism was however denied by some of his <i>Junimist</i> advocates, who attempted to link his entire work with Maiorescu's guidelines: on the basis of <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer%27s_aesthetics" title="Arthur Schopenhauer's aesthetics">Schopenhauerian aesthetics</a>, critic <a href="/wiki/Mihail_Dragomirescu" title="Mihail Dragomirescu">Mihail Dragomirescu</a> postulated that his humor was pure, and did not draw on any special circumstance or context.<sup id="cite_ref-247" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a></sup>
</p><p>Through many of his traits, Caragiale was connected to a <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkan</a> environment of virtually permanent human contact, with its humor condensed in <a href="/wiki/Anecdote" title="Anecdote">anecdotes</a>, mimicry, and witty comebacks.<sup id="cite_ref-248" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a></sup> Zarifopol quoted him saying that he admired the traditional forms of entertainment, and that he admired the <i>soitarìi</i> ("<a href="/wiki/Buffoon" class="mw-redirect" title="Buffoon">buffoons</a>").<sup id="cite_ref-zarifpubl_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifpubl-22">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-249" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a></sup>
</p><p>Largely reflecting his primordial study of <a href="/wiki/Dramaturgy" title="Dramaturgy">dramaturgy</a>, Caragiale's literature is indebted to dialog, as well as, in rarer cases, to <a href="/wiki/Internal_monologue" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal monologue">internal monologue</a> and <a href="/wiki/Free_indirect_speech" title="Free indirect speech">free indirect speech</a> (the favorite technique of Naturalists).<sup id="cite_ref-250" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a></sup> Language takes the central role in his work, often compensating for the lack of detail.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-251" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a></sup> To this was added his tendency to reduce texts to their essence—he shortened down not only his own text, but also his occasional translations of stories by <a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Wied" title="Elisabeth of Wied">Queen Elisabeth</a> and even <a href="/wiki/Miguel_de_Cervantes" title="Miguel de Cervantes">Miguel de Cervantes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Edgar Allan Poe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup> At times, he added a lyrical, meditative or autobiographical, perspective to his works: this trait was especially obvious in his later <a href="/wiki/Fantasy" title="Fantasy">fantasy</a> works (<i><a href="/wiki/Kir_Ianulea" title="Kir Ianulea">Kir Ianulea</a></i> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Calul_dracului&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Calul dracului (page does not exist)">Calul dracului</a></i> among them), all marked by <a href="/wiki/Neo-romanticism" title="Neo-romanticism">Neoromantic</a> inspiration.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._205_252-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._205-252">[252]</a></sup> Zarifopol claimed that, although Caragiale often rejected the tendency of other writers to capitalize on <a href="/wiki/Picturesque" title="Picturesque">picturesque</a> images, he often used them in his own writings.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>Caragiale arguably won as much acclaim for his rigorous approach to playwriting as for his accomplished style. With <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Vlahu%C8%9B%C4%83" title="Alexandru Vlahuță">Alexandru Vlahuță</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Co%C8%99buc" title="George Coșbuc">George Coșbuc</a> and others, he belonged to the first generation of Romanian authors to take a noted interest in imposing <a href="/wiki/Professionalism" title="Professionalism">professionalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-253" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a></sup> He was specific about this requirement—on one occasion, he used sarcasm to overturn a common misconception, saying: "Literature is an art that needs not be learned; whoever knows how to turn letters into syllables and the latter into words has had sufficient preparation to engage in literature."<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._205_252-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._205-252">[252]</a></sup> Commenting on this, Vianu stressed: "[...] even under the appearance of ease, [Caragiale] lets us catch sight of the severe law of his art"<sup id="cite_ref-254" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a></sup> (adding elsewhere that "[Caragiale] was a scrupulous and tormented artist").<sup id="cite_ref-255" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a></sup>
</p><p>Caragiale compared writers who could not dissimulate their intent and generate a good story with "a <a href="/wiki/Strabismus" title="Strabismus">cross-eyed</a> who tells you which way to go: one doesn't known if he is to go down the road he points to, or down the road he is looking at".<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup> Speaking in the late 1890s, he also likened writing for the stage with <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a>:
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<blockquote><p>"In truth, just as much as the architect's plan is not yet the final accomplishment of his intent—that is to say, the monument—but only its conventional recording [...], so too is the dramaturg's writing not yet the accomplishment of his intent — that is to say, the comedy — but the conventional recording, to which will be added the personal elements, in order to depict a development of human circumstances and deeds. In short: just as an architect's plan bears little resemblance to a painting, so does drama bear little resemblance to a poem."<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._187_256-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._187-256">[256]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Political_and_social_vision">Political and social vision</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Liberalism_and_republicanism">Liberalism and republicanism</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CuzaGhimpele1872.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/CuzaGhimpele1872.PNG/220px-CuzaGhimpele1872.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/CuzaGhimpele1872.PNG/330px-CuzaGhimpele1872.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/CuzaGhimpele1872.PNG/440px-CuzaGhimpele1872.PNG 2x" data-file-width="986" data-file-height="666" /></a><figcaption>Anti-dynasty cartoon, published in <i>Ghimpele</i> in 1872, and illustrating the differences of opinion inside the <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Romania" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Romania">liberal camp</a>. Left panel: <a href="/wiki/Alexander_John_Cuza" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander John Cuza">Alexander John Cuza</a> betrayed by <a href="/wiki/Ion_Br%C4%83tianu" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion Brătianu">Ion Brătianu</a>; right panel: <a href="/wiki/Carol_I_of_Romania" title="Carol I of Romania">Carol I</a>, supported by <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a> and Brătianu, feeding off of <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German</a> influence and economic privilege</figcaption></figure>
<p>His interest in first-hand investigation of the human nature was accompanied, at least after he reached maturity, by a distaste for generous and <a href="/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">universalist</a> theories.<sup id="cite_ref-257" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a></sup> Caragiale viewed their impact on Romanian society with a critical eye. Like <i><a href="/wiki/Junimea" title="Junimea">Junimea</a></i>, he was amused by the cultural legacy of <a href="/wiki/Wallachian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Wallachian Revolution of 1848">1848 Wallachian revolutionaries</a>, and by its image in National Liberal discourse. Nevertheless, he claimed that there was a clear difference between the first generation of <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Romania" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Romania">liberal activists</a>—<a href="/wiki/Ion_C%C3%A2mpineanu" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion Câmpineanu">Ion Câmpineanu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ion_Heliade_R%C4%83dulescu" title="Ion Heliade Rădulescu">Ion Heliade Rădulescu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_B%C4%83lcescu" title="Nicolae Bălcescu">Nicolae Bălcescu</a>—and the new liberal establishment, which, as he believed, had come to cultivate <a href="/wiki/Hypocrisy" title="Hypocrisy">hypocrisy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demagogy" class="mw-redirect" title="Demagogy">demagogy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Political_corruption" title="Political corruption">political corruption</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-258" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a></sup> He exemplified the latter group by citing some of its prominent members: <a href="/wiki/Pantazi_Ghica" title="Pantazi Ghica">Pantazi Ghica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Misail" title="Nicolae Misail">Nicolae Misail</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-259" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a></sup> At one point, he argued that, had they not died young, the leaders of 1848 could have found themselves best represented by the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(Romania,_1880%E2%80%931918)" title="Conservative Party (Romania, 1880–1918)">Conservatives</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-260" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a></sup> He recorded the way in which National Liberal politicians claimed to take inspiration from the revolt, and pointed out that the 1848 slogans had become rallying calls for the most banal causes.<sup id="cite_ref-261" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a></sup>
</p><p>His almost lifelong critique of the liberal current, marked by his conflicts with <a href="/wiki/Dimitrie_Sturdza" title="Dimitrie Sturdza">Dimitrie Sturdza</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bogdan_Petriceicu_Hasdeu" title="Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu">Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu</a>, was partly inspired by the <i>Junimea</i> guidelines — in line with the <i>Junimists</i>, Caragiale perceived liberals as agents of <a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a>, popular Romanticism, and <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a>, as tenets prevalent in the literature of his day.<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._9_262-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._9-262">[262]</a></sup> For Caragiale, the resulting liberal-inspired literary works were <i>spanac</i> ("spinach").<sup id="cite_ref-263" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a></sup> The writer thus identified late 19th-century Romanian liberalism "empty talk", and his attacks on demagogy partly mirrored Maiorescu's views about the National Liberals' "inebriation with words".<sup id="cite_ref-264" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a></sup>
</p><p>Caragiale centered some of his first attacks on the "Reds" and their leader <a href="/wiki/C._A._Rosetti" title="C. A. Rosetti">C. A. Rosetti</a>, in whose <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republicanism</a> and inflammatory rhetoric he saw the main threat to Romanian society.<sup id="cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibrextremacar-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-265" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a></sup> The writer believed that, ever since having ousted <a href="/wiki/Alexander_John_Cuza" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander John Cuza">Alexander John Cuza</a> from his throne, both Rosetti and <a href="/wiki/Ion_Br%C4%83tianu" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion Brătianu">Ion Brătianu</a> were using their republican basis as an asset, inciting to rebellion only when their demands were not met.<sup id="cite_ref-266" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a></sup> He frequently ridiculed the cult with which Rosetti surrounded figures of international republicanism, such as <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a> and <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Gambetta" title="Léon Gambetta">Léon Gambetta</a>, and indicated that the National Liberal public had very vague and impractical notions of what a republican state actually implied.<sup id="cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibrextremacar-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-267" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a></sup>
</p><p>The republican agitation is no longer emphasized in Caragiale's later works, as republicanism slowly faded out of the mainstream liberal discourse.<sup id="cite_ref-268" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a></sup> Noting this, several critics believe that, in his <i><a href="/wiki/O_scrisoare_pierdut%C4%83" title="O scrisoare pierdută">O scrisoare pierdută</a></i>, which depicts the battle between two unnamed political camps, the dramatist alluded to the conflict between Brătianu's moderates and Rosetti's extremists (as indicated by the fact that all the main characters attend the same rallies).<sup id="cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibrextremacar-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-269" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a></sup> This view was disputed by Zarifopol, who argued that the more pragmatic grouping stands for the Conservatives, and the demagogic one for the National Liberals as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-270" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Nationalism">Nationalism</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Ion Luca Caragiale was a vocal critic of <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a>, which was mostly represented by the National Liberals and <a href="/wiki/A._C._Cuza" title="A. C. Cuza">A. C. Cuza</a>'s emerging movement. At a time when the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Jewish community</a> was denied <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Emancipation" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Emancipation">emancipation</a>, he advocated its full integration into Romanian society, calling for <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> to be extended to all residents of Romania. Around 1907, he tried his hand at writing a legislative proposal, according to which the Romanian state was to extend citizenship all resident <a href="/wiki/Stateless_person" class="mw-redirect" title="Stateless person">stateless persons</a> who did not enjoy foreign protection—in its manuscript form, this document was kept by his friend <a href="/wiki/Dimitrie_Gusti" title="Dimitrie Gusti">Dimitrie Gusti</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-271" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Garabet_Ibr%C4%83ileanu" title="Garabet Ibrăileanu">Garabet Ibrăileanu</a>, his rejection of antisemitic views was owed either to his failure to relate with the <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a> and its anti-Jewish stances, or to his "powerful intelligence", which contrasted with the "instinctual, almost zoological nature" of the antisemitic discourse.<sup id="cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibrextremacar-24">[24]</a></sup>
</p><p>His criticism of both the nationalist discourse and liberal-inspired education generated subjects for several of his shorter satirical writings. Caragiale thus authored a mock-pamphlet advertising the program of a new cultural society, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rom%C3%A2nii_Verzi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Românii Verzi (page does not exist)">Românii Verzi</a></i> (the "Green Romanians"), who took its <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racialist</a> proposals to the point of arguing that "[...] a nation must always fear other nations".<sup id="cite_ref-272" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a></sup> Like <i>Junimea</i>, he was entirely opposed to the group of <a href="/wiki/August_Treboniu_Laurian" title="August Treboniu Laurian">August Treboniu Laurian</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Transylvania" title="Transylvania">Transylvanian</a> intellectuals, who attempted to reform the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian language</a> by introducing new forms of speech and writing that aimed to return it closer to its <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> roots. In his stories, Caragiale created the teacher <a href="/w/index.php?title=Marius_Chico%C8%99_Rostogan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marius Chicoș Rostogan (page does not exist)">Marius Chicoș Rostogan</a>, a caricature of both the liberal educators and the Transylvanian "Latinists".<sup id="cite_ref-Ornea,_p._226_273-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ornea,_p._226-273">[273]</a></sup> While in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, the writer also persiflaged some of <a href="/wiki/Vasile_Alecsandri" title="Vasile Alecsandri">Vasile Alecsandri</a>'s liberal and <a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">patriotic</a> writings—he completed Alecsandri's nationalist poem <i>Tricolorul</i> with sarcastic verses that were meant to enhance its <a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">xenophobic</a> feel (showing the Romanians ready to do battle against all their perceived enemies in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-274" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a></sup>
</p><p>Nevertheless, various authors believe that a young Caragiale did indeed support nationalist liberal policies, and presume that he was behind a series of anti-Jewish columns, published by <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Voin%C8%9Ba_Na%C8%9Bional%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Voința Națională (page does not exist)">Voința Națională</a></i> during the early 1880s.<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._9_262-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._9-262">[262]</a></sup> This was for long disputed: <a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">rabbi</a> and literary historian <a href="/wiki/Moses_Gaster" title="Moses Gaster">Moses Gaster</a> attributed the pieces to <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Xenopol" title="Nicolae Xenopol">Nicolae Xenopol</a>, while researcher <a href="/wiki/%C8%98erban_Cioculescu" title="Șerban Cioculescu">Șerban Cioculescu</a>, who originally doubted them, eventually agreed that they formed an integral part of Caragiale's work.<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._21_84-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._21-84">[84]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Conservatism_and_traditionalism">Conservatism and traditionalism</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caragiale_and_Vlahuta.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/15/Caragiale_and_Vlahuta.jpeg/220px-Caragiale_and_Vlahuta.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/15/Caragiale_and_Vlahuta.jpeg/330px-Caragiale_and_Vlahuta.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/15/Caragiale_and_Vlahuta.jpeg/440px-Caragiale_and_Vlahuta.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1320" data-file-height="1603" /></a><figcaption>Caragiale (left) and <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Vlahu%C8%9B%C4%83" title="Alexandru Vlahuță">Alexandru Vlahuță</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>In some of his early articles, and again as he distanced himself from <i>Junimea</i>, the writer showed himself to be a vocal critic of the Conservative doctrine and its <i>Junimist</i> representatives. This is especially evident in his 1907 essay and in some of his stories.<sup id="cite_ref-275" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a></sup> Caragiale claimed that both <a href="/wiki/Titu_Maiorescu" title="Titu Maiorescu">Titu Maiorescu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Petre_P._Carp" title="Petre P. Carp">Petre P. Carp</a> were "<a href="/wiki/Boyar" title="Boyar">boyars</a>" who prioritized the interest of their <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social class</a> (which was by then nonetheless defunct, as traditional <a href="/wiki/Privilege_(legal_ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Privilege (legal ethics)">privilege</a> had been formally abolished a generation earlier).<sup id="cite_ref-276" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a></sup> Cioculescu attributed this to an "<a href="/wiki/Inferiority_complex" title="Inferiority complex">inferiority complex</a>" Caragiale felt in respect to his former patrons.<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._22_277-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._22-277">[277]</a></sup>
</p><p>Despite his brief association with the mainstream Conservatives, Caragiale was probably never their partisan, and only hoped that the party could open the way for the reforms advertised by <a href="/wiki/George_Panu" title="George Panu">George Panu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Lahovari" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandru Lahovari">Alexandru Lahovari</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-278" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a></sup> When disappointed with their failure to promote change, he moved on to support <a href="/wiki/Take_Ionescu" title="Take Ionescu">Take Ionescu</a> and his dissident grouping.<sup id="cite_ref-279" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a></sup> Uniquely among students of Caragiale's work, <a href="/wiki/George_C%C4%83linescu" title="George Călinescu">George Călinescu</a> argued that the writer's main interest was not in criticizing the liberals, but actually in an overall rejection of the most embedded <i>Junimist</i> tenets, which, in Călinescu's view, had engendered "a lack of faith in the country's own powers".<sup id="cite_ref-280" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Zarifopol" title="Paul Zarifopol">Paul Zarifopol</a> believed that several of his <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Momente_%C8%99i_schi%C8%9Be&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Momente și schițe (page does not exist)">Momente și schițe</a></i> characters, including the effeminate high life chronicler Edgar Bostandaki, are caricatures of the Conservatives.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifpubl_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifpubl-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p><p>Caragiale contrasted the other major writers of his generation, including his friends Mihai Eminescu, <a href="/wiki/Ioan_Slavici" title="Ioan Slavici">Ioan Slavici</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barbu_%C8%98tef%C4%83nescu_Delavrancea" title="Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea">Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea</a>, and <i><a href="/wiki/S%C4%83m%C4%83n%C4%83torul" title="Sămănătorul">Sămănătorul</a></i> journal founder <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Vlahu%C8%9B%C4%83" title="Alexandru Vlahuță">Alexandru Vlahuță</a>, all of whom were advocating a return to the rural sphere and peasant traditionalism.<sup id="cite_ref-281" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a></sup> In <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Moftul_Rom%C3%A2n&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Moftul Român (page does not exist)">Moftul Român</a></i>, he <a href="/wiki/Parody" title="Parody">parodied</a> the <a href="/wiki/Archaism" title="Archaism">archaisms</a> favored by Ștefănescu Delavrancea;<sup id="cite_ref-282" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a></sup> during his final years, he also questioned the aesthetic value of Ștefănescu Delavrancea's medieval-themed play <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Apus_de_soare&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Apus de soare (page does not exist)">Apus de soare</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-283" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a></sup> Prominent nationalists and traditionalists tended to be reserved in their assessment of Caragiale's literary contributions—they include his friend Eminescu<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._6_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._6-41">[41]</a></sup> and historian <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Iorga" title="Nicolae Iorga">Nicolae Iorga</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-284" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a></sup>
</p><p>Nonetheless, Ion Luca Caragiale was, according to Zarifopol, a passionate advocate of tradition in front of innovation, and "a defender of the well-established truths".<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tudor_Vianu" title="Tudor Vianu">Tudor Vianu</a> also evidenced that Caragiale treasured his <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Orthodox_Church" title="Romanian Orthodox Church">Orthodox</a> identity, frequently appealing to God and the saints in both his private life and his writings.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._197_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._197-16">[16]</a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Ioan_Slavici" title="Ioan Slavici">Ioan Slavici</a>, Caragiale defined himself as "a right-believing <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a>", and disagreed with Eminescu on the nature of religion (at a time when the poet was a passionate student of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._197_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._197-16">[16]</a></sup> Cioculescu called this trait "primitive religiosity".<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._7_285-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._7-285">[285]</a></sup> The writer is also known to have convinced that <a href="/wiki/Luck" title="Luck">luck</a> and <a href="/wiki/Destiny" title="Destiny">destiny</a> manifested themselves in life,<sup id="cite_ref-286" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a></sup> and his <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=C%C4%83nu%C8%9B%C4%83_om_sucit&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cănuță om sucit (page does not exist)">Cănuță om sucit</a></i>, a short story about a proverbially unlucky fellow, is thought to have referred to its author.<sup id="cite_ref-287" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a></sup> His <a href="/wiki/Superstition" title="Superstition">superstitions</a> were accompanied by a series of <a href="/wiki/Phobia" title="Phobia">phobias</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Pyrophobia" title="Pyrophobia">pyrophobia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nosophobia" title="Nosophobia">nosophobia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._7_285-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._7-285">[285]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Caragiale_and_the_modernists">Caragiale and the modernists</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Ion Luca Caragiale was mostly critical of literary experiments and the newer stages of <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a>. On this basis, he persistently ridiculed <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Macedonski" title="Alexandru Macedonski">Alexandru Macedonski</a>'s style, especially after the latter adopted <a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolism</a>. Much of his own poetry, especially pieces published in <i>Moftul Român</i> after 1901, parodied the <a href="/wiki/Symbolist_movement_in_Romania" title="Symbolist movement in Romania">Romanian Symbolist clubs</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Parnassianism" title="Parnassianism">Parnassianism</a> of Macedonski's <i>Literatorul</i><sup id="cite_ref-288" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a></sup> (among the best-known of these targets was poet <a href="/wiki/Cincinat_Pavelescu" title="Cincinat Pavelescu">Cincinat Pavelescu</a>, who was coeditor at <i>Literatorul</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-289" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-289">[289]</a></sup>
</p><p>As editor of <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epoca_(Romania)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epoca (Romania) (page does not exist)">Epoca</a>'</i>s literary supplement, Caragiale refused to publish a descriptive poem by the young <a href="/wiki/Gala_Galaction" title="Gala Galaction">Gala Galaction</a>, claiming that it was not poetry (when <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Filipescu" title="Nicolae Filipescu">Nicolae Filipescu</a> asked him to reconsider, he threatened to quit).<sup id="cite_ref-290" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-290">[290]</a></sup> Late in his life, he reserved explicit criticism for the new generation of Symbolists, whose work, he argued, belonged to "the church" of <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgian</a> poet <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Maeterlinck" title="Maurice Maeterlinck">Maurice Maeterlinck</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-291" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a></sup> Zarifopol also noted that, for as long as he lived, the writer derided the innovative works of <a href="/wiki/Henrik_Ibsen" title="Henrik Ibsen">Henrik Ibsen</a> and <a href="/wiki/August_Strindberg" title="August Strindberg">August Strindberg</a>, but pointed out that Caragiale had never actually read or seen their plays.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>Nevertheless, Caragiale was not entirely opposed to newer trends in poetry and art. Literary critic <a href="/wiki/Matei_C%C4%83linescu" title="Matei Călinescu">Matei Călinescu</a> believes that he genuinely admired <i>În orașul cu trei sute de biserici</i> ("In the City with Three Hundred Churches"), a <a href="/wiki/Free_verse" title="Free verse">free verse</a> poem by the Symbolist <a href="/wiki/Ion_Minulescu" title="Ion Minulescu">Ion Minulescu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-mateicalinescu_292-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mateicalinescu-292">[292]</a></sup> This work is believed to have inspired a 1908 parody by Caragiale, in which the writer proclaimed his support for Take Ionescu.<sup id="cite_ref-mateicalinescu_292-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mateicalinescu-292">[292]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-293" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a></sup> According to poet and essayist <a href="/wiki/Tudor_Arghezi" title="Tudor Arghezi">Tudor Arghezi</a>, Caragiale also admired the works of <a href="/wiki/%C8%98tefan_Luchian" title="Ștefan Luchian">Ștefan Luchian</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Postimpressionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Postimpressionism">Postimpressionist</a> whose paintings were often exhibited in Bucharest galleries.<sup id="cite_ref-294" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Caragiale_and_the_Left">Caragiale and the Left</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Moving toward the <a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left</a> during the final decades of his life, the writer maintained connection with the <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialists</a>, but was nonetheless ambivalent to their goals. As Cioculescu noted, he welcomed the Bucharest celebration of <a href="/wiki/May_Day" title="May Day">May Day</a> in one of his <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Moftul_Rom%C3%A2n&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Moftul Român (page does not exist)">Moftul Român</a></i> pieces,<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._22_277-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._22-277">[277]</a></sup> and probably agreed to lecture for the Workers' Club in the capital.<sup id="cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibrextremacar-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._22_277-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._22-277">[277]</a></sup> Some of his writings were hosted by the socialist journal <i><a href="/wiki/Rom%C3%A2nia_Muncitoare" title="România Muncitoare">România Muncitoare</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-295" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-295">[295]</a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Garabet_Ibr%C4%83ileanu" title="Garabet Ibrăileanu">Garabet Ibrăileanu</a>, himself a socialist at the time, "sometime after 1890, Caragiale briefly flirted with socialism."<sup id="cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibrextremacar-24">[24]</a></sup>
</p><p>However, over the same period, Caragiale ridiculed several socialist militants, referring to one of their leaders with the derisive nickname <i>Edgard Spanachidi</i> (itself a derivative of "spinach").<sup id="cite_ref-296" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-296">[296]</a></sup> Instead, his loose association with <a href="/wiki/George_Panu" title="George Panu">George Panu</a> signified a return to <a href="/wiki/Radicalism_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radicalism (historical)">radicalism</a>, and saw him campaigning in favor of <a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">universal suffrage</a> and a complete <a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">land reform</a><sup id="cite_ref-297" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-297">[297]</a></sup>—this clashed with the views he had expressed earlier in life, and Caragiale was careful not to let it seem that he had returned to the "Red" liberalism of his youth.<sup id="cite_ref-298" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-298">[298]</a></sup>
</p><p>In one of his articles, Ion Luca Caragiale commented with irony on the <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> views of his friend <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Dobrogeanu-Gherea" title="Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea">Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea</a>: he compared the latter's way of dining on a leg of veal, laboriously carving it into sections, to his philosophical approach. Caragiale thus noted that <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">philosophical skepticism</a> was equivalent to stripping the bone of its flesh piece by piece, and then throwing it to the dogs—without having been able to fully document the leg of veal or its substance.<sup id="cite_ref-299" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-299">[299]</a></sup> Nevertheless, as Tudor Vianu indicated, although Caragiale preferred observation and spontaneity to speculation, he was not averse to pure philosophical analysis, and frequently quoted the <a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">classics</a> in defense of his aesthetic guidelines.<sup id="cite_ref-300" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-300">[300]</a></sup> Late in his life, Caragiale also sparked debates after deriding the emerging <a href="/wiki/Poporanism" title="Poporanism">Poporanism</a>, a school of thought which took its inspiration from socialism, <a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">agrarianism</a> and traditionalism.<sup id="cite_ref-301" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-301">[301]</a></sup> He is also known to have been amused by the <a href="/wiki/1907_German_federal_election" title="1907 German federal election">German election of 1907</a> and the resulting defeat registered by the <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="Social Democratic Party of Germany">Social Democratic Party</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-302" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-302">[302]</a></sup>
</p><p>Caragiale maintained a friendship with Dobrogeanu-Gherea for much of his life. He was especially interested in news of Dobrogeanu-Gherea having become involved in the 1905 <a href="/wiki/Russian_battleship_Potemkin" title="Russian battleship Potemkin">Russian battleship Potemkin</a> scandal, after the aging socialist decided to offer his help to the refugee sailors as they arrived in <a href="/wiki/Constan%C8%9Ba" title="Constanța">Constanța</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-303" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-303">[303]</a></sup> During his time in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, he repeatedly tried to convince the Dobrogeanu-Ghereas to leave their home in Romania and join him abroad.<sup id="cite_ref-304" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-304">[304]</a></sup> Nonetheless, he criticized the philosopher when the latter refused to be decorated by <a href="/wiki/King_of_Romania" title="King of Romania">King</a> <a href="/wiki/Carol_I_of_Romania" title="Carol I of Romania">Carol I</a> (1909).<sup id="cite_ref-305" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-305">[305]</a></sup> Around 1907, the dramatist was also interested in the activities of <a href="/wiki/Christian_Rakovsky" title="Christian Rakovsky">Christian Rakovsky</a>, who was trying to make his way back into Romania, and closely followed news of street clashes between his supporters and the authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-306" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-306">[306]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Settings">Settings</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sinaia_Prahova_old_pic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Sinaia_Prahova_old_pic.jpg/220px-Sinaia_Prahova_old_pic.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Sinaia_Prahova_old_pic.jpg/330px-Sinaia_Prahova_old_pic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Sinaia_Prahova_old_pic.jpg/440px-Sinaia_Prahova_old_pic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3409" data-file-height="2536" /></a><figcaption>Early 20th century panorama of <a href="/wiki/Sinaia" title="Sinaia">Sinaia</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>The writer had an unprecedented familiarity with the social environments, traits, opinions, manners of speech, means of expression and lifestyle choices of his day — from the rural atmosphere of his early childhood, going through his vast experience as a journalist, to the high spheres of politics (<a href="/wiki/National_Liberal_Party_(Romania,_1875)" title="National Liberal Party (Romania, 1875)">National Liberal</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(Romania,_1880%E2%80%931918)" title="Conservative Party (Romania, 1880–1918)">Conservative</a>, <i>Junimist</i> as well as socialist).<sup id="cite_ref-307" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-307">[307]</a></sup> An incessant traveler, Caragiale carefully investigated everyday life in most areas of the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Old_Kingdom" title="Romanian Old Kingdom">Romanian Old Kingdom</a> and Transylvania.<sup id="cite_ref-308" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-308">[308]</a></sup> He was an unusually sociable man:<sup id="cite_ref-zarifpubl_22-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifpubl-22">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-309" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-309">[309]</a></sup> in one of his letters from <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, he asked Alceu Urechia to send his regards to over 40 of his acquaintances in <a href="/wiki/Sinaia" title="Sinaia">Sinaia</a> (from <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a> diplomats to street vendors or beggars).<sup id="cite_ref-310" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-310">[310]</a></sup>
</p><p>Several of his major works have a rural setting—they include <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=N%C4%83pasta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Năpasta (page does not exist)">Năpasta</a></i>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%8En_vreme_de_r%C4%83zboi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="În vreme de război (page does not exist)">În vreme de război</a></i>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=La_hanul_lui_M%C3%A2njoal%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="La hanul lui Mânjoală (page does not exist)">La hanul lui Mânjoală</a></i>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Calul_dracului&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Calul dracului (page does not exist)">Calul dracului</a></i>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=P%C4%83cat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Păcat (page does not exist)">Păcat</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/O_f%C4%83clie_de_Pa%C8%99te" title="O făclie de Paște">O făclie de Paște</a></i>, as well as fragments of the pseudo-<a href="/wiki/Fairy_tale" title="Fairy tale">fairy tales</a> he authored late in life.<sup id="cite_ref-311" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-311">[311]</a></sup> Nevertheless, Caragiale is foremost known and acclaimed for his urban themes, which form the background to the vast majority of his most accomplished writings.<sup id="cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibrextremacar-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-312" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-312">[312]</a></sup>
</p><p>The author depicted the city in all stages of its development and in all its atmospheres — from nightlife to <i>Căldură mare'</i>s midday torpor, from noisy <a href="/wiki/Slum" title="Slum">slums</a> and the <i>Târgul Moșilor</i> fête in <a href="/wiki/Obor" title="Obor">Obor</a> to the <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">English</a>-inspired <a href="/wiki/Tea_party_(social_gathering)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tea party (social gathering)">tea parties</a> of the urban elite.<sup id="cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibrextremacar-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-313" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-313">[313]</a></sup> This large fresco drew comparisons with his generation colleague <a href="/wiki/Ion_Creang%C4%83" title="Ion Creangă">Ion Creangă</a>, who was argued to have done the same for the countryside.<sup id="cite_ref-314" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-314">[314]</a></sup> Caragiale was especially proud of the opening paragraph in his <i>Ultima emisiune...</i> story, part of <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Momente_%C8%99i_schi%C8%9Be&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Momente și schițe (page does not exist)">Momente și schițe</a></i>, which, he believed, the "corner of a slum" was suggested to perfection.<sup id="cite_ref-315" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-315">[315]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Tudor_Vianu" title="Tudor Vianu">Tudor Vianu</a> also noted that, among cities and towns, Caragiale preferred Bucharest and those provincial centers most exposed to <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central European</a> influences (specifically, the summer retreats in the <a href="/wiki/Prahova_Valley" title="Prahova Valley">Prahova Valley</a> and other Wallachian stations on the way to Transylvania).<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._199_316-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._199-316">[316]</a></sup> The enclosed world of the <a href="/wiki/C%C4%83ile_Ferate_Rom%C3%A2ne" title="Căile Ferate Române">Romanian Railways</a> also appealed to the writer, and an impressive number of his sketches relate to it in various ways.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._199_316-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._199-316">[316]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Collective_characters">Collective characters</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sava_Hentia_-_Targul_Mosilor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Sava_Hentia_-_Targul_Mosilor.jpg/220px-Sava_Hentia_-_Targul_Mosilor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Sava_Hentia_-_Targul_Mosilor.jpg/330px-Sava_Hentia_-_Targul_Mosilor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Sava_Hentia_-_Targul_Mosilor.jpg/440px-Sava_Hentia_-_Targul_Mosilor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="330" /></a><figcaption><i>Târgul Moșilor</i>, the <a href="/wiki/Fair" title="Fair">fair</a> in <a href="/wiki/Obor" title="Obor">Obor</a> (late 19th-century painting by <a href="/wiki/Sava_Hen%C8%9Bia" title="Sava Henția">Sava Henția</a>)</figcaption></figure>
<p>Confessing at some point that "the world was my school", Caragiale dissimulated his background and critical eye as a means to blend into each environment he encountered, and even adopted the manners and speech patterns he later recorded in his literary work.<sup id="cite_ref-317" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-317">[317]</a></sup> He thus encouraged familiarity, allowing people to reveal their histories, motivations, and culture.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._195_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._195-20">[20]</a></sup> Vianu recounted: "The man was a consummate actor and a <i><a href="/wiki/Deadpan" title="Deadpan">pince-sans-rire</a></i>, an ironist [...] to the point where his partners of dialog were never sure if they were spoken to 'seriously' [...]."<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._196_318-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._196-318">[318]</a></sup> In one of his pieces from 1899, he welcomed the famous actors <a href="/wiki/Eleonora_Duse" title="Eleonora Duse">Eleonora Duse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean_Mounet-Sully" title="Jean Mounet-Sully">Jean Mounet-Sully</a> to Bucharest, imitating the exaggerated style of other theater chroniclers—the article ended with Caragiale confessing that he had not actually seen the two perform.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._196_318-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._196-318">[318]</a></sup> In one other instance, as a means to comment on <a href="/wiki/Plagiarism" title="Plagiarism">plagiarism</a>, the author also parodied his own <i>O făclie de Paște</i>—which he turned into the sketch, <i>Noaptea Învierii</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._205_252-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._205-252">[252]</a></sup>
</p><p>In <i>1907, din primăvară până în toamnă</i>, his late and disillusioned work, Caragiale lashed out at the traditional class of political clients, with an indictment which, Tudor Vianu believed, also served to identify the main focus of his other writings:
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<blockquote><p>"plebs incapable of work and lacking employment, impoverished suburban small traders and street vendors, petty dangerous agitators of the villages and of the areas adjacent to towns, bullying election agents; and then the hybrid product of all levels of schooling, semi-cultured intellectuals, lawyers and lawyerlings, professors, teachers and teacherlings, semi-illiterate and unfrocked priests, illiterate schoolteachers—all of them beer garden theorists; next come the great functionaries and the little clerks, most of them removable from office."<sup id="cite_ref-319" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-319">[319]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Direct criticism was nonetheless rare in Caragiale's fiction: Vianu believed to have found traces of it in <i><a href="/wiki/O_scrisoare_pierdut%C4%83" title="O scrisoare pierdută">O scrisoare pierdută</a></i> ("the most cruel [of his satires]") and in <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Hotel_%22Victoria_rom%C3%A2n%C4%83%22&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Grand Hotel "Victoria română" (page does not exist)">Grand Hotel "Victoria română"</a></i> ("the most bitter").<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._201_320-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._201-320">[320]</a></sup> On several occasions, Caragiale showed or even defined himself as a sentimental, and his modesty was acknowledged by several of his friends.<sup id="cite_ref-321" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-321">[321]</a></sup> Vianu noted that, alongside his Christian <a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">ethos</a>, this contributed to his distant, calm and often sympathetic overall take on society.<sup id="cite_ref-322" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-322">[322]</a></sup> In his words:
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<blockquote><p>"A wave of charm, of reconciliation with life passes above all [his characters], one which, if it only assumes light and superficial shapes, experienced by naive people with harmless manias, is a sign that the collective existence is taking place in shelter from the great trials."<sup id="cite_ref-323" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-323">[323]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>In contrast with this, <a href="/wiki/Poporanism" title="Poporanism">Poporanist</a> critic <a href="/wiki/Garabet_Ibr%C4%83ileanu" title="Garabet Ibrăileanu">Garabet Ibrăileanu</a> argued that Caragiale actually hated the people who inspired his works, and claimed that the writer had made this clear during one of their conversations.<sup id="cite_ref-Cazimir_1967,_p._44_324-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cazimir_1967,_p._44-324">[324]</a></sup> His account was considered doubtful by researcher <a href="/w/index.php?title=%C8%98tefan_Cazimir&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ștefan Cazimir (page does not exist)">Ștefan Cazimir</a>, who believed that Ibrăileanu was using it to back a polemic and singular overview of Caragiale's work.<sup id="cite_ref-Cazimir_1967,_p._44_324-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cazimir_1967,_p._44-324">[324]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to Vianu, there is a manifest difference between Ion Luca Caragiale's comedies and his <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Momente_%C8%99i_schi%C8%9Be&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Momente și schițe (page does not exist)">Momente și schițe</a></i>: the former are, in his view, driven by situations and circumstances, whereas the latter sees Caragiale developing his original perspective to its fullest.<sup id="cite_ref-325" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-325">[325]</a></sup> This, he argues, was determined by important social changes—a move from a traditional world—awkwardly attempting to digest <a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modernization" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernization">modernization</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Francization" title="Francization">Francized</a> culture—, to a more stable and prosperous environment.<sup id="cite_ref-326" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-326">[326]</a></sup> A similar division was applied by Ibrăileanu.<sup id="cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibrextremacar-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-327" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-327">[327]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Types">Types</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Theoretical_aspects">Theoretical aspects</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>The form of <a href="/wiki/Literary_realism" title="Literary realism">Realism</a> favored by Caragiale placed types of characters at the center of literary creativity, owing to the influence of <a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._201_320-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._201-320">[320]</a></sup> Several critics have credited <i>Momente și schițe</i>, as well as all his dramas, with providing some of the first truly believable portrayals in local literature.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-328" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-328">[328]</a></sup> Vianu stressed that Classicist borrowings in Caragiale's writings were limited, indicating that Caragiale parted with the notion of "generic types" to look for the "social" ones.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._201_320-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._201-320">[320]</a></sup> In parallel, literary critic <a href="/wiki/George_C%C4%83linescu" title="George Călinescu">George Călinescu</a> argued that "[t]he typological structure is present in Caragiale's work as a supporting structure, without being essential."<sup id="cite_ref-329" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-329">[329]</a></sup>
</p><p>In Vianu's assessment, the universal human nature was important to Caragiale, but not made instantly obvious (as opposed to the immediate importance his characters were meant to have in the eyes of his public).<sup id="cite_ref-330" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-330">[330]</a></sup> Vianu illustrated this concept after investigating the manner in which Caragiale completed his <i>O scrisoare pierdută</i>: the author was for long undecided about which character was to win the electoral battle on which the play centers, but opted for Agamiță Dandanache, the senile <a href="/wiki/Radicalism_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radicalism (historical)">radical</a>, because his victory was to give the play more depth.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._202_331-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._202-331">[331]</a></sup> Caragiale was thus quoted saying that Dandanache was "more stupid" than the clueless politician Tache Farfuridi, and "more of a scoundrel" than the unprincipled and cunning journalist Nae Cațavencu.<sup id="cite_ref-332" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-332">[332]</a></sup>
</p><p>In Vianu's view, <i>Momente și schițe</i> was more vague in this respect, giving little insight into morals and states of mind, whereas the other, longer, novellas did depict feelings and occasionally provided additional details such as <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a> or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cenesthesia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cenesthesia (page does not exist)">cenesthesia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._202_331-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._202-331">[331]</a></sup> Also according to Vianu, Ion Luca Caragiale, unlike the Naturalists, was generally not interested in offering the reader access to his characters' <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychological</a> background—aside from his <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=N%C4%83pasta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Năpasta (page does not exist)">Năpasta</a></i> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=P%C4%83cat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Păcat (page does not exist)">Păcat</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/O_f%C4%83clie_de_Pa%C8%99te" title="O făclie de Paște">O făclie de Paște</a></i>, he only adopted the psychological technique in satirical contexts, as a means to parody its use.<sup id="cite_ref-333" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-333">[333]</a></sup> A similar view was expressed by Vianu's predecessor, <a href="/wiki/Silvian_Iosifescu" title="Silvian Iosifescu">Silvian Iosifescu</a>, who also stressed that Caragiale always avoided applying the Naturalist technique to its fullest,<sup id="cite_ref-Mîndra,_p._271_334-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mîndra,_p._271-334">[334]</a></sup> while George Călinescu himself believed that the characters' motivations in <i>O făclie de Paște</i> are actually physiological and <a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">ethnological</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Călinescu,_p._179_335-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Călinescu,_p._179-335">[335]</a></sup>
</p><p>Maiorescu was especially fond of the way in which Caragiale balanced his personal perspective and the generic traits he emphasized: speaking of Leiba Zibal, the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Jewish</a> character in <i>O făclie de Paște</i> who defends himself out of fear, he drew a comparison with Shakespeare's <a href="/wiki/Shylock" title="Shylock">Shylock</a>. He thus noted that, for all the differences in style between the two authors, both their characters stood for the Jewish people as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-336" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-336">[336]</a></sup> This assessment was backed by Maiorescu's adversary, <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Dobrogeanu-Gherea" title="Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea">Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dbrghestmet_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dbrghestmet-114">[114]</a></sup> George Călinescu also believed that, aside from his individual nature, Zibal provided readers with an accurate insight into Jewish reactions to systemic persecution and death threats.<sup id="cite_ref-Călinescu,_p._179_335-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Călinescu,_p._179-335">[335]</a></sup> Such assessments were rejected by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Zarifopol" title="Paul Zarifopol">Paul Zarifopol</a>, who opposed generalizations and commented that the work only referred to "[t]he ingenious cruelty of a man maddened by fear".<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Allegories">Allegories</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>One of Caragiale's main and earliest types is that of the young man gripped by love, expressing himself through emphatic and Romantic clichés—its main representative is <i><a href="/wiki/O_noapte_furtunoas%C4%83" class="mw-redirect" title="O noapte furtunoasă">O noapte furtunoasă</a>'</i>s Rică Venturiano. As Vianu commented, Caragiale exploited the theme to so much success that it took another generation for youthful love to be presented in a non-comedic context (with the common signature writings of <a href="/wiki/%C8%98tefan_Octavian_Iosif" title="Ștefan Octavian Iosif">Ștefan Octavian Iosif</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dimitrie_Anghel" title="Dimitrie Anghel">Dimitrie Anghel</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-337" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-337">[337]</a></sup> At the other end are <a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">patriarchal</a> figures, heads of families who seem unable or unwilling to investigate their wives' <a href="/wiki/Adultery" title="Adultery">adulterous</a> relations with younger men.<sup id="cite_ref-danmanuca_11-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danmanuca-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-338" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-338">[338]</a></sup> This behavior is notably present in <i>O noapte furtunoasă</i>, where the aged Dumitrache fails to note even the most obvious signs that his wife Veta is in love with his good friend Chiriac.<sup id="cite_ref-339" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-339">[339]</a></sup> A more complex situation is present in <i>O scrisoare pierdută</i>, where political boss Trahanache cannot tell that his wife Joițica is having an affair with Tipătescu, and, when confronted with the evidence, is more interested in proving that she is not.<sup id="cite_ref-340" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-340">[340]</a></sup>
</p><p>With Venturiano, Caragiale also introduces criticism of the liberal journalist and lawyers. A law school student, Venturiano contributes long and exaggerated articles to the republican press, which recall those authored by <a href="/wiki/C._A._Rosetti" title="C. A. Rosetti">C. A. Rosetti</a> and his collaborators.<sup id="cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibrextremacar-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-341" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-341">[341]</a></sup> A more elaborate such character is Nae Cațavencu, who plays a major part in <i>O scrisoare pierdută</i>, and who, using a "Red" discourse, attacks politicians on all sides with turbulent remarks and recourse to <a href="/wiki/Blackmail" title="Blackmail">blackmail</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibrextremacar-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-342" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-342">[342]</a></sup> He profits from the more moderate attitudes of his adversaries to proclaim himself a <a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">progressive</a> politician, and he is successful in doing so—Cațavencu rallies around him a group of teachers and other state employees.<sup id="cite_ref-343" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-343">[343]</a></sup> The only person who is able to stop his rise is Agamiță Dandanache, an old <a href="/wiki/Wallachian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Wallachian Revolution of 1848">1848 revolutionary</a>. Danadanche, shown to have been sidelined from politics, makes a comeback at a time when the factions needs his inoffensive presence as a third-party, and, although senile, has a vast experience in blackmailing.<sup id="cite_ref-344" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-344">[344]</a></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=%C8%98tefan_Cazimir&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ștefan Cazimir (page does not exist)">Ștefan Cazimir</a> linked Dandanache to a new <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a>, created around the first generation of Romanian liberals, and likened him to a <a href="/wiki/Hidalgo_(Spanish_nobility)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hidalgo (Spanish nobility)">hidalgo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-345" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-345">[345]</a></sup> Tache Farfuridi, a competitor to both, has been described by Cazimir as a conformist self-seeker, in the manner of <a href="/wiki/M._and_Mme._Joseph_Prudhomme" title="M. and Mme. Joseph Prudhomme">M. Joseph Prudhomme</a>, a character made famous by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Monnier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Henri Monnier (page does not exist)">Henri Monnier</a>'s prose.<sup id="cite_ref-346" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-346">[346]</a></sup>
</p><p>Written between the two other comedies, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conu_Leonida_fa%C8%9B%C4%83_cu_reac%C8%9Biunea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Conu Leonida față cu reacțiunea (page does not exist)">Conu Leonida față cu reacțiunea</a></i> depicts the long-term effects of republican discourse on its fascinated audience, through the sayings and actions of Leonida. The latter, whose source of income is a state <a href="/wiki/Pension" title="Pension">pension</a>, notably supports the notion that the "Red" republic will provide each clerk with a salary, a pension, as well as a <a href="/wiki/Debt_moratorium" title="Debt moratorium">debt moratorium</a><sup id="cite_ref-347" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-347">[347]</a></sup>—<a href="/wiki/%C8%98erban_Cioculescu" title="Șerban Cioculescu">Șerban Cioculescu</a> noted that this request had already been voiced in real life, and issued as a political program by an obscure <a href="/wiki/Utopian_socialism" title="Utopian socialism">Utopian socialist</a> named Pițurcă.<sup id="cite_ref-348" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-348">[348]</a></sup> Eventually, Leonida is convinced that revolution cannot be on the rise, since the authorities have banned the firing of weapons within city limits.<sup id="cite_ref-349" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-349">[349]</a></sup> Similar fallacies are uttered by one of the secondary characters in <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=D-ale_carnavalului&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="D-ale carnavalului (page does not exist)">D-ale carnavalului</a></i>, known to the other protagonists as <i>Catindatul</i>, who has a vague familiarity with both <a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">subjective idealist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialist</a> tenets, the sources for his absurd theories about <a href="/wiki/Suggestibility" title="Suggestibility">suggestibility</a> and "magnetism"—two processes in which he sees the universal source for all discomfort or disease.<sup id="cite_ref-350" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-350">[350]</a></sup> In parallel, Zarifopol argued, the writer had even allowed ironic reflections on the impact of various theories to seep into a more serious work, <i>O făclie de Paște</i>, where two students terrify the innkeeper Zibal by casually discussing <a href="/wiki/Anthropological_criminology" title="Anthropological criminology">anthropological criminology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>Several other of Caragiale's characters have traditionally been considered <a href="/wiki/Allegory" title="Allegory">allegories</a> of <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social classes</a> and even regional identities. One of the most famous ones is <a href="/wiki/Mitic%C4%83" title="Mitică">Mitică</a>, a recurring character who stands for ordinary <a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bucharesters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachians</a> or <a href="/wiki/Muntenia" title="Muntenia">Muntenians</a> in general.<sup id="cite_ref-danmanuca_11-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danmanuca-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Călinescu,_p._181_227-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Călinescu,_p._181-227">[227]</a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Hypocrisy" title="Hypocrisy">hypocritical</a> and seemingly superficial man, Mitică expresses himself through either platitudes or clichés he believes are clever,<sup id="cite_ref-danmanuca_11-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danmanuca-11">[11]</a></sup> and, illustrating a tendency Caragiale first recorded in his <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Moftul_Rom%C3%A2n&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Moftul Român (page does not exist)">Moftul Român</a></i>, quickly dismisses all important things he is confronted with.<sup id="cite_ref-Călinescu,_p._181_227-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Călinescu,_p._181-227">[227]</a></sup> Similarly, the teacher <a href="/w/index.php?title=Marius_Chico%C8%99_Rostogan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marius Chicoș Rostogan (page does not exist)">Marius Chicoș Rostogan</a>, who is present or named in several sketches, stands for those <a href="/wiki/Transylvania" title="Transylvania">Transylvanian</a> expatriates in Romania whose sympathies went to the liberal current.<sup id="cite_ref-Ornea,_p._226_273-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ornea,_p._226-273">[273]</a></sup> His discourse, through which Caragiale sarcastically illustrates liberal tenets in respect to <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Romania" title="Education in Romania">Romanian education</a>, is centered on a disregard for content and a rigor for memorizing irrelevant details.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ornea,_p._226_273-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ornea,_p._226-273">[273]</a></sup> It has been proposed that Rostogan is at least partly based on Vasile Grigore Borgovan, a Transylvanian-born educator and resident of <a href="/wiki/Drobeta-Turnu_Severin" title="Drobeta-Turnu Severin">Turnu Severin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-351" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-351">[351]</a></sup>
</p><p><i>Cetățeanul turmentat</i>, an unnamed inebriated man who makes brief but relevant appearances in <i>O scrisoare pierdută</i>, is thought to symbolize simple townsfolk, utterly confused by the political battle going on around them, and ignored by all the notabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-352" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-352">[352]</a></sup> Like his counterpart, the police agent Ghiță Pristanda, the inebriated elector has no relevant personal ambition,<sup id="cite_ref-353" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-353">[353]</a></sup> and stands for the so-called "government dowry"—people afraid of losing their offices, and ready to back whoever is in power.<sup id="cite_ref-354" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-354">[354]</a></sup> According to Călinescu, the inebriated citizen worships authority as a "supreme god", despite all its absurdities.<sup id="cite_ref-355" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-355">[355]</a></sup> He repeatedly claims to have served Trahanache during <a href="/wiki/Alexander_John_Cuza" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander John Cuza">Alexander John Cuza</a>'s ousting, but his supposed patron only acknowledges him once, when asking party members to "escort this honorable person outside".<sup id="cite_ref-356" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-356">[356]</a></sup>
</p><p>In a number of his short stories and sketches, Caragiale makes use of another particularly <i>Junimist</i> theme, and investigates the glamorous but superficial impact of <a href="/wiki/Modernization" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernization">modernization</a> on <a href="/wiki/Upper_class" title="Upper class">high society</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibrextremacar-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-357" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-357">[357]</a></sup> In one sketch, a couple of ladies dine in an opulent salon, while cursing their maid, gossiping, and showing interest in vulgar subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibrextremacar-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-358" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-358">[358]</a></sup> The characters in these writings tend to resemble each other, evidencing the generic traits of the well-to-do.<sup id="cite_ref-359" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-359">[359]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_traits_and_characters">Other traits and characters</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p><a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">Anxieties</a> take the central stage in several of Caragiale's writings. From early on, Caragiale's minute analysis of mounting terror in <i>O făclie de Paște</i> won the praise of <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Dobrogeanu-Gherea" title="Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea">Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-360" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-360">[360]</a></sup> In several of his sketches and stories, characters are driven to despair by their inability to cope with real or presumed changes in their environment.<sup id="cite_ref-holbanemigr_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-holbanemigr-8">[8]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._89_361-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._89-361">[361]</a></sup> This is shown to have happened to characters such as Leiba Zibal, Stavrache—the pub owner in <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%8En_vreme_de_r%C4%83zboi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="În vreme de război (page does not exist)">În vreme de război</a></i>—, as well as Anghelache (the suicide victim in <i>Inspecțiune...</i>, part of <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Momente_%C8%99i_schi%C8%9Be&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Momente și schițe (page does not exist)">Momente și schițe</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-362" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-362">[362]</a></sup> Șerban Cioculescu referred to the latter three as "great <a href="/wiki/Neurosis" title="Neurosis">neurotics</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._89_361-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._89-361">[361]</a></sup> while Iosifescu defined Zibal and Stavrache as "<a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">demented</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Mîndra,_p._271_334-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mîndra,_p._271-334">[334]</a></sup> Among the group of insane characters in Caragiale's work, Călinescu counted those of sketches and stories like <i>1 Aprilie</i> ("1st of April"), where an <a href="/wiki/April_Fools%27_Day" title="April Fools' Day">April Fool</a> ends with a murder, and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dou%C4%83_loturi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Două loturi (page does not exist)">Două loturi</a></i>, where the clerk Lefter Popescu goes through the tribulations of having lost his winning ticket.<sup id="cite_ref-363" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-363">[363]</a></sup>
</p><p>Anxiety over imminent events grips the main characters in <i>Conu Leonida față cu reacțiunea</i>, and plays a part in female behavior as depicted in all his other comedies.<sup id="cite_ref-364" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-364">[364]</a></sup> A special kind of fear animates the main protagonists of <i>D-ale carnavalului</i>, whose jealousy leads them to act irrationally.<sup id="cite_ref-365" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-365">[365]</a></sup> Thus, Iancu Pampon, an assistant-barber and former police officer, and his female counterpart, the republican suburbanite Mița Baston, are determined to uncover their partners' amorous escapades, and their hectic inquiry combines real clues with figments of imagination, fits of passionate rage with moments of sad meditation, and violent threats with periods of resignation.<sup id="cite_ref-366" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-366">[366]</a></sup> Glimpses into this type of behavior have been noted in other plays by Caragiale: Cazimir placed emphasis on the fact that Farfuridi is shown to be extremely cautious towards all unplanned changes, and consumes much of his energy in preserving a largely pointless daily routine.<sup id="cite_ref-367" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-367">[367]</a></sup>
</p><p>Many of Caragiale's writings reproduce discussions between clerks on their time off, which usually take the shape of generic and awkward forays into culture or politics. Several of the characters in his sketches spuriously claim to be personal friends of major political figures of the day, or to have access to the back-rooms of politics and journalism.<sup id="cite_ref-368" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-368">[368]</a></sup> Although often alarmed by political or social developments, they tend to accommodate them quickly, and often encourage each other during very long stays at the <a href="/wiki/Beer_garden" title="Beer garden">beer garden</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-369" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-369">[369]</a></sup> Gravitating in this environment are the petty journalists, who boast access to unlikely <a href="/wiki/Scoop_(term)" class="mw-redirect" title="Scoop (term)">scoops</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> having decided to invade Romania.<sup id="cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibrextremacar-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._114_370-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._114-370">[370]</a></sup> In one instance, Caragiale invents Caracudi, a newspaperman who writes his <a href="/wiki/Sensationalism" title="Sensationalism">sensationalist</a> articles while relaxing in the park.<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._114_370-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._114-370">[370]</a></sup>
</p><p>Caragiale's <a href="/wiki/Persona" title="Persona">persona</a> is placed in numerous of his works. Aside from deduced self-portraits in <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=C%C4%83nu%C8%9B%C4%83_om_sucit&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cănuță om sucit (page does not exist)">Cănuță om sucit</a></i> and elsewhere, he created the famous background character Nenea Iancu ("Uncle Iancu"), building on his colloquial name and his status as a regular client of the beer gardens.<sup id="cite_ref-371" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-371">[371]</a></sup> He introduces several of his <i>Momente și schițe</i> characters as personal friends, and garnishes the stories with intimate details.<sup id="cite_ref-372" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-372">[372]</a></sup> Late in his life, he even confessed that the affair involving Venturiano, Dumitrache, and Dumitrache's wife Veta was partly based on an amorous misadventure he experienced as a young man.<sup id="cite_ref-373" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-373">[373]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Literary_influences">Literary influences</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Daumier_-_Honest_people.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Daumier_-_Honest_people.jpg/220px-Daumier_-_Honest_people.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Daumier_-_Honest_people.jpg/330px-Daumier_-_Honest_people.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Daumier_-_Honest_people.jpg/440px-Daumier_-_Honest_people.jpg 2x" data-file-width="664" data-file-height="519" /></a><figcaption><i>We are all honest people, let's embrace one another, and let this be over with</i>, 1834 print by <a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Daumier" title="Honoré Daumier">Honoré Daumier</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>Aside from the many authors whose works he quoted, translated or <a href="/wiki/Parody" title="Parody">parodied</a>, Ion Luca Caragiale built on a vast literary legacy. According to literary historian Ștefan Cazimir: "No writer ever had as large a number of precursors [as Caragiale], just as no other artistic synthesis was ever more organic and more spontaneous."<sup id="cite_ref-374" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-374">[374]</a></sup>
</p><p>A man of the theater first and foremost, Caragiale was well-acquainted with the work of his predecessors, from <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantics</a>, and heavily impressed by the French <i><a href="/wiki/Com%C3%A9die_en_vaudeville" class="mw-redirect" title="Comédie en vaudeville">comédie en vaudeville</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._I,_p._310_244-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._I,_p._310-244">[244]</a></sup> He applied the notion of <a href="/wiki/Well-made_play" title="Well-made play">well-made plays</a>, as theorized by <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Scribe" title="Eugène Scribe">Eugène Scribe</a>, and was also influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Dramaturgy" title="Dramaturgy">dramaturgy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Marin_Labiche" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugène Marin Labiche">Eugène Marin Labiche</a> and <a href="/wiki/Victorien_Sardou" title="Victorien Sardou">Victorien Sardou</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-danmanuca_11-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danmanuca-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-375" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-375">[375]</a></sup> Reportedly, Labiche was his favorite author.<sup id="cite_ref-376" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-376">[376]</a></sup>
</p><p>The writer himself cited <a href="/wiki/Cilibi_Moise" title="Cilibi Moise">Cilibi Moise</a>, a <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Wallachian Jewish</a> <a href="/wiki/Peddler" title="Peddler">peddler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aphorism" title="Aphorism">aphorist</a>, as an early influence, recalling how, as a child, he used to read his <a href="/wiki/One-liner_joke" class="mw-redirect" title="One-liner joke">one-liner jokes</a>, and treasured them as exceptional samples of concise humor.<sup id="cite_ref-Cazimir_1967,_p._62_377-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cazimir_1967,_p._62-377">[377]</a></sup> He was similarly impressed by the works of Moise's contemporary, the prolific author <a href="/wiki/Anton_Pann" title="Anton Pann">Anton Pann</a>, whose accomplishments he praised during talks with his fellow <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Convorbiri_Critice&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Convorbiri Critice (page does not exist)">Convorbiri Critice</a></i> contributors,<sup id="cite_ref-Cazimir_1967,_p._62_377-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cazimir_1967,_p._62-377">[377]</a></sup> and whose work served as a source for at least one of his own stories.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Filimon" title="Nicolae Filimon">Nicolae Filimon</a>, whom Caragiale praised on several occasions, was the author of short stories which several authors have identified as less accomplished versions of Rică Venturiano. A similar connection has been traced between the various sketches authored by <a href="/wiki/Ion_Heliade_R%C4%83dulescu" title="Ion Heliade Rădulescu">Ion Heliade Rădulescu</a>, in which Transylvanian writers are the object of ridicule, and Caragiale's character, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Marius_Chico%C8%99_Rostogan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marius Chicoș Rostogan (page does not exist)">Marius Chicoș Rostogan</a>. Caragiale's late admiration for <a href="/wiki/Bogdan_Petriceicu_Hasdeu" title="Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu">Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu</a> was also linked to affinities in comedic styles,<sup id="cite_ref-378" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-378">[378]</a></sup> as was his companionship with <a href="/wiki/Iacob_Negruzzi" title="Iacob Negruzzi">Iacob Negruzzi</a> (himself the author of sarcastic pieces ridiculing the liberal politicians and lawyers).<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-379" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-379">[379]</a></sup>
</p><p>Caragiale is believed to have used and developed several themes already present in Romanian theatre. One such precursor is the author of comedies Teodor Myller, especially through his play <i>Fata lui Chir Troancă</i> ("Kir Troancă's Daughter").<sup id="cite_ref-380" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-380">[380]</a></sup> The writer was most likely very familiar with the comedies authored by his two uncles, <a href="/wiki/Costache_Caragiale" title="Costache Caragiale">Costache and Iorgu Caragiale</a>, which have been shown to develop themes he later explored in depth. Among the minor 19th century dramatists whose comedic works were familiar to Caragiale, and in many ways similar to his, own was Costache Halepliu.<sup id="cite_ref-381" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-381">[381]</a></sup> Another often-cited influence is his predecessor and adversary <a href="/wiki/Vasile_Alecsandri" title="Vasile Alecsandri">Vasile Alecsandri</a>, whose <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coana_Chiri%C8%9Ba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coana Chirița (page does not exist)">Coana Chirița</a></i> plays are an early critique of <a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibrextremacar-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-382" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-382">[382]</a></sup> The two authors nonetheless differ in many ways, with Caragiale assuming a more complex role, and observing a more complex society.<sup id="cite_ref-antohi_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-antohi-18">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibrextremacar-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-383" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-383">[383]</a></sup>
</p><p>Ion Luca Caragiale is known to have been amused by the <a href="/wiki/Stock_character" title="Stock character">stock character</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Macaire" title="Robert Macaire">Robert Macaire</a>, at a time when the latter had been turned into a comedic character by <a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9rick_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Frédérick Lemaître">Frédérick Lemaître</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-384" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-384">[384]</a></sup> While in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, he purchased the cartoons of French artists <a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Daumier" title="Honoré Daumier">Honoré Daumier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Gavarni" title="Paul Gavarni">Paul Gavarni</a> (although it is not known if their separate portrayals of Macaire were familiar to him)<sup id="cite_ref-Cazimir_1967,_p._103-105_385-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cazimir_1967,_p._103-105-385">[385]</a></sup> — among these drawings was one showing notabilities embracing one another while picking each other's pockets, which shows similarities with Caragiale's own take on society. According to Cazimir, it is possible that he knew Daumier's work from early on, as several other subjects caricatured by the French artist bear a remarkable resemblance to his texts.<sup id="cite_ref-Cazimir_1967,_p._103-105_385-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cazimir_1967,_p._103-105-385">[385]</a></sup>
</p><p>Ion Luca Caragiale was also keenly aware and receptive of his contemporaries' works and of <i><a href="/wiki/Fin_de_si%C3%A8cle" title="Fin de siècle">fin de siècle</a></i> innovations. The literary creations of <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Zola" title="Émile Zola">Émile Zola</a> were a noted source of inspiration, and the parallel led <a href="/wiki/George_C%C4%83linescu" title="George Călinescu">George Călinescu</a> to propose him and <a href="/wiki/Barbu_%C8%98tef%C4%83nescu_Delavrancea" title="Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea">Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea</a> as the main representatives of Zola's style in local literature.<sup id="cite_ref-Călinescu,_p._179_335-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Călinescu,_p._179-335">[335]</a></sup> At the same time, <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Dobrogeanu-Gherea" title="Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea">Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea</a> believed that both <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=N%C4%83pasta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Năpasta (page does not exist)">Năpasta</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/O_f%C4%83clie_de_Pa%C8%99te" title="O făclie de Paște">O făclie de Paște</a></i> showed the "obvious enough influence" of <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoevsky" title="Fyodor Dostoevsky">Fyodor Dostoevsky</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-386" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-386">[386]</a></sup> Late in his life, Caragiale discovered the literature of <a href="/wiki/Anatole_France" title="Anatole France">Anatole France</a> — according to <a href="/wiki/Paul_Zarifopol" title="Paul Zarifopol">Paul Zarifopol</a>, France's <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanist</a> themes served as a model for some of Caragiale's <a href="/wiki/Fantasy_literature" title="Fantasy literature">fantasy</a> writings.<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._195_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._195-20">[20]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>Discussing the latter works, Vianu noted that they reminded one of <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_late_romances" title="Shakespeare's late romances">Shakespeare's late romances</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._205_252-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._205-252">[252]</a></sup> while <a href="/wiki/%C8%98erban_Cioculescu" title="Șerban Cioculescu">Șerban Cioculescu</a> believed them to have been indirectly inspired by the works of <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Edgar Allan Poe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._38_146-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._38-146">[146]</a></sup> In his report for the academy, <a href="/wiki/Dimitrie_C._Oll%C4%83nescu-Ascanio" title="Dimitrie C. Ollănescu-Ascanio">Dimitrie C. Ollănescu-Ascanio</a> also drew a parallel between Poe's works and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=La_hanul_lui_M%C3%A2njoal%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="La hanul lui Mânjoală (page does not exist)">La hanul lui Mânjoală</a></i>, but this hypothesis was rejected by Zarifopol.<sup id="cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zarifintrod-21">[21]</a></sup> In addition, <i><a href="/wiki/Kir_Ianulea" title="Kir Ianulea">Kir Ianulea</a></i>, partly using <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a>'s novel as a source, was held as evidence of Caragiale's interest in <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_literature" title="Renaissance literature">Renaissance literature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-387" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-387">[387]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Cultural_legacy">Cultural legacy</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>The writer's investigations into <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Romania" title="Culture of Romania">Romanian culture</a> also resulted in an accurate record of the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian language</a> as it was spoken during his day, sampling <a href="/wiki/Romanian_dialects" title="Romanian dialects">dialects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jargon" title="Jargon">jargon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slang" title="Slang">slang</a>, verbal <a href="/wiki/Tic" title="Tic">tics</a>, as well as illustrating the experiments undertaken by conflicting schools of <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> during the 19th and early 20th century, as well as the traces they left on the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_lexis" title="Romanian lexis">Romanian lexis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-388" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-388">[388]</a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Tudor_Vianu" title="Tudor Vianu">Tudor Vianu</a>'s opinion, this was partly owed to his keen musical ear.<sup id="cite_ref-389" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-389">[389]</a></sup>
</p><p>Caragiale was an enduring influence on both <a href="/wiki/Romanian_humor" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian humor">Romanian humor</a> and the views Romanians take of themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-boiaborderland_390-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boiaborderland-390">[390]</a></sup> His comedies and various stories have produced a series of <a href="/wiki/Catchphrase" title="Catchphrase">catchphrases</a>, many of which are still present in both cultural reference. Nevertheless, his uncomfortable criticism has occasionally seen him assigned a secondary place in the <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Romania" title="Education in Romania">Romanian curriculum</a> and the academic discourse, a tendency notably endorsed by the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Guard" title="Iron Guard">Iron Guard</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Romania" title="Communist Romania">Socialist Republic of Romania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-antohi_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-antohi-18">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>In parallel, Caragiale's techniques have influenced 20th century dramatists such as <a href="/wiki/Mihail_Sorbul" title="Mihail Sorbul">Mihail Sorbul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Victor_Ion_Popa" title="Victor Ion Popa">Victor Ion Popa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mihail_Sebastian" title="Mihail Sebastian">Mihail Sebastian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/George_Mihail_Zamfirescu" title="George Mihail Zamfirescu">George Mihail Zamfirescu</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-391" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-391">[391]</a></sup> and various directors, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Constantin_I._Nottara" title="Constantin I. Nottara">Constantin I. Nottara</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_Gusti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paul Gusti (page does not exist)">Paul Gusti</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._323_91-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._323-91">[91]</a></sup> Several of his theatrical writings have been the subject of essays authored by director <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sic%C4%83_Alexandrescu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sică Alexandrescu (page does not exist)">Sică Alexandrescu</a>, whose interpretation of the texts made use of the <a href="/wiki/Stanislavsky_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanislavsky System">Stanislavsky System</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-392" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-392">[392]</a></sup> Caragiale's short stories and novellas have inspired authors such as <a href="/wiki/Ioan_A._Bassarabescu" title="Ioan A. Bassarabescu">Ioan A. Bassarabescu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_Br%C4%83escu" title="Gheorghe Brăescu">Gheorghe Brăescu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ioan_Alexandru_Br%C4%83tescu-Voine%C8%99ti" title="Ioan Alexandru Brătescu-Voinești">Ioan Alexandru Brătescu-Voinești</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dumitru_D._P%C4%83tr%C4%83%C8%99canu" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumitru D. Pătrășcanu">Dumitru D. Pătrășcanu</a>, <a href="/wiki/I._Peltz" title="I. Peltz">I. Peltz</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-393" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-393">[393]</a></sup> and, in later decades, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Radu_Cosa%C8%99u&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radu Cosașu (page does not exist)">Radu Cosașu</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ioan_L%C4%83cust%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ioan Lăcustă (page does not exist)">Ioan Lăcustă</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horia_G%C3%A2rbea" title="Horia Gârbea">Horia Gârbea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dumitru_Radu_Popa" title="Dumitru Radu Popa">Dumitru Radu Popa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-394" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-394">[394]</a></sup> According to various authors, Caragiale was also a predecessor of <a href="/wiki/Theater_of_the_Absurd" class="mw-redirect" title="Theater of the Absurd">Absurdism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-holbanemigr_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-holbanemigr-8">[8]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-danmanuca_11-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danmanuca-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-boiaborderland_390-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boiaborderland-390">[390]</a></sup> and he is known to have been cited as an influence by the Absurdist dramatist <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Ionesco" title="Eugène Ionesco">Eugène Ionesco</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-holbanemigr_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-holbanemigr-8">[8]</a></sup> Outside Romania, the impact of Ion Luca Caragiale's literature was much reduced—the 1996 <i>Cambridge Paperback Guide to Theatre</i> attributed this to the technical problems posed by translations, as well as to the tendency of staging his works as <a href="/wiki/Period_piece" class="mw-redirect" title="Period piece">period pieces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-395" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-395">[395]</a></sup> It was not until 2019 that one of his plays - A Lost Letter - was performed in English. The translation used on that occasion, at the Romanian Cultural Institute in London, is available here: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.pdf2html5.com/pdfupload/server/php/uploads/admin_oxffauqbza/lost-letter-2019/complete.php">https://www.pdf2html5.com/pdfupload/server/php/uploads/admin_oxffauqbza/lost-letter-2019/complete.php</a>
</p><p>Several authors have left memoirs of Ion Luca Caragiale. They include <a href="/wiki/Octavian_Goga" title="Octavian Goga">Octavian Goga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ioan_Slavici" title="Ioan Slavici">Ioan Slavici</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-396" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-396">[396]</a></sup> I. Suchianu, <a href="/wiki/Luca_Caragiale" title="Luca Caragiale">Luca Caragiale</a>, Ecaterina Logadi-Caragiale,<sup id="cite_ref-397" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-397">[397]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Cincinat_Pavelescu" title="Cincinat Pavelescu">Cincinat Pavelescu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cpavelescu_164-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cpavelescu-164">[164]</a></sup> Among his later biographers was <a href="/w/index.php?title=Octav_Minar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Octav Minar (page does not exist)">Octav Minar</a>, who stood accused of having forged certain details for commercial gain.<sup id="cite_ref-398" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-398">[398]</a></sup> Direct or covert depictions of Caragiale are also present in several fiction works, starting with a <a href="/wiki/Revue" title="Revue">revue</a> first shown during his lifetime,<sup id="cite_ref-399" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-399">[399]</a></sup> and including novels by Goga, Slavici, <a href="/wiki/N._Petra%C8%99cu" title="N. Petrașcu">N. Petrașcu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emanoil_Bucu%C8%9Ba" title="Emanoil Bucuța">Emanoil Bucuța</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Lovinescu" title="Eugen Lovinescu">Eugen Lovinescu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Stere" title="Constantin Stere">Constantin Stere</a>, as well as a play by <a href="/wiki/Camil_Petrescu" title="Camil Petrescu">Camil Petrescu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-400" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-400">[400]</a></sup> In 1939, <a href="/w/index.php?title=B._Jordan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="B. Jordan (page does not exist)">B. Jordan</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lucian_Predescu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lucian Predescu (page does not exist)">Lucian Predescu</a>, published a common signature novel on the writer, which was criticized for its style, tone, and inaccuracies.<sup id="cite_ref-401" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-401">[401]</a></sup> The short story writer Brătescu-Voinești proposed that Ion Luca Caragiale's love affair with <a href="/wiki/Veronica_Micle" title="Veronica Micle">Veronica Micle</a> and Eminescu's anger provide the key to Eminescu's poem <i><a href="/wiki/Luceaf%C4%83rul_(poem)" title="Luceafărul (poem)">Luceafărul</a></i>, but his theory remains controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-402" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-402">[402]</a></sup> Caragiale is also probably present in his son <a href="/wiki/Mateiu_Caragiale" title="Mateiu Caragiale">Mateiu</a>'s work <i><a href="/wiki/Craii_de_Curtea-Veche" title="Craii de Curtea-Veche">Craii de Curtea-Veche</a></i>, where his lifestyle and contribution to literature appear to be the subjects of derision.<sup id="cite_ref-403" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-403">[403]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RO_DB_Caragiale_memorial_house.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/RO_DB_Caragiale_memorial_house.jpg/220px-RO_DB_Caragiale_memorial_house.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/RO_DB_Caragiale_memorial_house.jpg/330px-RO_DB_Caragiale_memorial_house.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/RO_DB_Caragiale_memorial_house.jpg/440px-RO_DB_Caragiale_memorial_house.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7202" data-file-height="3638" /></a><figcaption>Ion Luca Caragiale memorial house in his native village</figcaption></figure>
<p>The writer was elected to the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Academy" title="Romanian Academy">Romanian Academy</a> posthumously, in 1948, upon the proposal of novelist <a href="/wiki/Mihail_Sadoveanu" title="Mihail Sadoveanu">Mihail Sadoveanu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-anulcaragiale_404-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anulcaragiale-404">[404]</a></sup> 2002, the 150th anniversary of Ion Luca Caragiale's birth, was celebrated in Romania as the <i>Anul Caragiale</i> (the "Caragiale Year").<sup id="cite_ref-anulcaragiale_404-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anulcaragiale-404">[404]</a></sup> Annual theater festivals in his honor are held in Bucharest and the <a href="/wiki/Moldova" title="Moldova">Moldovan</a> capital of <a href="/wiki/Chi%C8%99in%C4%83u" title="Chișinău">Chișinău</a>. Caragiale's work has been the subject of many productions in <a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Romania" title="Cinema of Romania">Romanian cinema</a> and television—films based on his writings include the 1958 <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dou%C4%83_lozuri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Două lozuri (page does not exist)">Două lozuri</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Lucian_Pintilie" title="Lucian Pintilie">Lucian Pintilie</a>'s 1981 <i><a href="/wiki/De_ce_trag_clopotele,_Mitic%C4%83%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="De ce trag clopotele, Mitică?">De ce trag clopotele, Mitică?</a></i>. In 1982, a <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West German</a> film, directed by <a href="/wiki/Radu_Gabrea" title="Radu Gabrea">Radu Gabrea</a> and based on <i><a href="/wiki/O_f%C4%83clie_de_Pa%C8%99te" title="O făclie de Paște">O făclie de Paște</a></i>, was released as <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fear_Not,_Jacob!&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fear Not, Jacob! (page does not exist)">Fear Not, Jacob!</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%BCrchte_dich_nicht,_Jakob!" class="extiw" title="de:Fürchte dich nicht, Jakob!">de</a>]</span></i>.
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/National_Theatre_Bucharest" title="National Theatre Bucharest">Bucharest National Theater</a> is currently known in full as <i>"Ion Luca Caragiale" National Theater</i>. Several educational institutions were named in his, including the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Academia_de_Art%C4%83_Teatral%C4%83_%C8%99i_Cinematografic%C4%83_Caragiale_din_Bucure%C8%99ti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Academia de Artă Teatrală și Cinematografică Caragiale din București (page does not exist)">Theater and Film Academy</a> and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ion_Luca_Caragiale_National_College_(Bucharest)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ion Luca Caragiale National College (Bucharest) (page does not exist)">Ion Luca Caragiale National College</a> in Bucharest, the national college in Ploiești, and a high school in <a href="/wiki/Moreni" title="Moreni">Moreni</a>. Among the statues raised in his honor are <a href="/w/index.php?title=Constantin_Baraschi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constantin Baraschi (page does not exist)">Constantin Baraschi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Ion_Luca_Caragiale_(Bucharest)" title="Statue of Ion Luca Caragiale (Bucharest)">Bucharest monument</a>, and busts in the capital's <a href="/wiki/Ci%C8%99migiu_Gardens" title="Cișmigiu Gardens">Cișmigiu Gardens</a> and in Ploiești. He was the subject of portraits and caricatures by various artists, and, in 2007, upon the completion of a five-year project involving cartoonists inside and outside Romania, he was designated "the most portrayed writer" by the <a href="/wiki/Guinness_World_Records" title="Guinness World Records">Guinness Book of Records</a> (with over 1,500 individual drawings in a single exhibit).<sup id="cite_ref-405" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-405">[405]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-406" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-406">[406]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1962, a house in <a href="/wiki/Ploie%C8%99ti" title="Ploiești">Ploiești</a> has been turned into a museum honoring Caragiale (the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dobrescu_House,_Ploie%C8%99ti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dobrescu House, Ploiești (page does not exist)">Dobrescu House</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-adevcasele_29-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adevcasele-29">[29]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-407" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-407">[407]</a></sup> His native home in <a href="/wiki/I._L._Caragiale,_D%C3%A2mbovi%C8%9Ba" title="I. L. Caragiale, Dâmbovița">Haimanale</a> was opened for the public in 1979.<sup id="cite_ref-408" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-408">[408]</a></sup> Memorial plaques have also been set up in <a href="/wiki/Buz%C4%83u" title="Buzău">Buzău</a><sup id="cite_ref-adevcasele_29-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adevcasele-29">[29]</a></sup> and on <a href="/wiki/Sch%C3%B6neberg" title="Schöneberg">Schöneberg</a>'s Hohenzollerndamm.<sup id="cite_ref-blagarol_192-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blagarol-192">[192]</a></sup> His name was given to streets, avenues, parks or quarters in many Romanian cities—such landmarks include the Bucharest street he lived on around 1900, a street in Ploiești, a quarter in <a href="/wiki/Bra%C8%99ov" title="Brașov">Brașov</a>, and a park in <a href="/wiki/Cluj-Napoca" title="Cluj-Napoca">Cluj-Napoca</a>. A street in Chișinău also bears the name Caragiale.
</p><p>The novel <i>The Republic</i> by the Romanian-American novelist <a href="/wiki/Bogdan_Suceav%C4%83" title="Bogdan Suceavă">Bogdan Suceavă</a> (Polirom Press, 2018) has as main character a 17-year old Ion Luca Caragiale, and depicts his involvement with the coup d'état attempt from 8 August 1870, in <a href="/wiki/Ploie%C8%99ti" title="Ploiești">Ploiești</a>.
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<li id="cite_note-birthd-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-birthd_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to his birth certificate, published and discussed by Constantin Popescu-Cadem in <i>Manuscriptum</i>, Vol. VIII, Nr. 2, 1977, pp. 179–184</span>
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<li id="cite_note-heinischeviasi-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-heinischeviasi_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-heinischeviasi_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-heinischeviasi_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Romanian)</span> Rosana Heinisch, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.evenimentul.ro/articol/grecii-mai-interesati-de.html">"Grecii, mai interesaţi de opera lui I.L.Caragiale decit conaţionalii săi"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927213358/http://www.evenimentul.ro/articol/grecii-mai-interesati-de.html">Archived</a> 27 September 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, in <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evenimentul&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Evenimentul (page does not exist)">Evenimentul</a></i>, 8 June 2002</span>
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<li id="cite_note-nastasa-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nastasa_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nastasa_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nastasa_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nastasa_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nastasa_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nastasa_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nastasa_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nastasa_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nastasa_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nastasa_3-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Romanian)</span> Lucian Nastasă, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history-cluj.ro/Istorie/cercet/Nastasa/Despre_genealogie.pdf"><i>Genealogia între ştiinţă, mitologie şi monomanie</i></a>, p. 18, at the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Academy" title="Romanian Academy">Romanian Academy</a>'s George Bariţ Institute of History, Cluj-Napoca. Retrieved 3 July 2007.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, pp. 5–6, 272; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 176</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._176-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._176_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._176_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 176</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-enemagist-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-26"><sup><i><b>aa</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enemagist_6-27"><sup><i><b>ab</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Romanian)</span> Georgeta Ene,<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1215172403">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#2C882D;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071007125154/http://www.itcnet.ro/history/archive/mi2002/current1/mi12.htm">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Caragiale la Berlin: Exil voluntar sau "misiune sub acoperire"? (I)"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. Archived from the original on 7 October 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Caragiale+la+Berlin%3A+Exil+voluntar+sau+%22misiune+sub+acoperire%22%3F+%28I%29%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.itcnet.ro%2Fhistory%2Farchive%2Fmi2002%2Fcurrent1%2Fmi12.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIon+Luca+Caragiale" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>)</span> , in <i><a href="/wiki/Magazin_Istoric" title="Magazin Istoric">Magazin Istoric</a></i>, January 2002, pp. 12–17</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, pp. 6, 272</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-holbanemigr-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-holbanemigr_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-holbanemigr_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-holbanemigr_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-holbanemigr_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-holbanemigr_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Romanian)</span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ioan_Holban&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ioan Holban (page does not exist)">Ioan Holban</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.evenimentul.ro/articol/i.l.-caragiale-fiul-unui.html">"I.L. Caragiale, fiul unui emigrant din Cefallonia (III)"</a>, in <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evenimentul&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Evenimentul (page does not exist)">Evenimentul</a></i>, 25 May 2002.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 18, 308</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 73–76; Cioculescu, pp. 6–7; Mîndra, pp. 5–6; Perpessicius, pg. 237; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 176</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-danmanuca-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-danmanuca_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-danmanuca_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-danmanuca_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-danmanuca_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-danmanuca_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-danmanuca_11-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-danmanuca_11-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-danmanuca_11-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-danmanuca_11-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-danmanuca_11-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-danmanuca_11-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-danmanuca_11-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-danmanuca_11-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-danmanuca_11-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-danmanuca_11-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-danmanuca_11-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-danmanuca_11-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-danmanuca_11-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-danmanuca_11-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-danmanuca_11-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-danmanuca_11-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dan Mănucă, "Caragiale", in Jean-Claude Polet, <i>Patrimoine littéraire européen: anthologie en langue française</i>, De Boeck Université, Paris, 2000, pp. 478–479; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-8041-3161-0" title="Special:BookSources/2-8041-3161-0">2-8041-3161-0</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 300–301; Mîndra, pp. 5–6; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 176</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 300–301</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-tudorovicizf-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tudorovicizf_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tudorovicizf_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tudorovicizf_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tudorovicizf_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tudorovicizf_14-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tudorovicizf_14-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tudorovicizf_14-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Romanian)</span> Doina Tudorovici <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zf.ro/ziarul-de-duminica/caragiale-quot-ai-avesi-tomnilor-cu-numele-meu-quot-3000264/">"Caragiale: 'ai avesi, tomnilor, cu numele meu?'"</a>, in <i><a href="/wiki/Ziarul_Financiar" title="Ziarul Financiar">Ziarul Financiar</a></i>, 5 July 2000.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 14, 29; Mîndra, pg. 5; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 197–198; Vol. III, pg. 74</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._197-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._197_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._197_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._197_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 197</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 124–125</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-antohi-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-antohi_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-antohi_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-antohi_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Sorin_Antohi" title="Sorin Antohi">Sorin Antohi</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iwm.at/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=235&Itemid=411">"Romania and the Balkans. From Geocultural Bovarism to Ethnic Ontology"</a>, in <i>Tr@nsit online</i>, Nr. 21/2002, <a href="/wiki/Institut_f%C3%BCr_die_Wissenschaften_vom_Menschen_(IWM)" class="mw-redirect" title="Institut für die Wissenschaften vom Menschen (IWM)">Institut für die Wissenschaften vom Menschen</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-coreseminescumicle-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-coreseminescumicle_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-coreseminescumicle_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-coreseminescumicle_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-coreseminescumicle_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-coreseminescumicle_19-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cristea-Enache, chapter "Corespondenţa inedită Mihai Eminescu – Veronica Micle. Filigranul geniului"</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._195-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._195_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._195_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._195_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._195_20-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 195</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-zarifintrod-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-26"><sup><i><b>aa</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-27"><sup><i><b>ab</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-28"><sup><i><b>ac</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-29"><sup><i><b>ad</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-30"><sup><i><b>ae</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-31"><sup><i><b>af</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-32"><sup><i><b>ag</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-33"><sup><i><b>ah</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifintrod_21-34"><sup><i><b>ai</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Romanian)</span> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Zarifopol" title="Paul Zarifopol">Paul Zarifopol</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Introduceri_la_edi%C5%A3ia_critic%C4%83_I.L._Caragiale%2C_opere"><i>Introduceri la ediţia critică I.L. Caragiale, opere</i></a> (wikisource)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-zarifpubl-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-zarifpubl_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifpubl_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifpubl_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifpubl_22-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifpubl_22-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zarifpubl_22-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Romanian)</span> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Zarifopol" title="Paul Zarifopol">Paul Zarifopol</a>, <i><a class="external text" href="https://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Arti%C5%9Fti_%C5%9Fi_idei_literare_rom%C3%A2ne:Publicul_%C5%9Fi_arta_lui_Caragiale">Artiști și idei literare române: Publicul și arta lui Caragiale</a></i> (wikisource)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 53–54</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ibrextremacar-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ibrextremacar_24-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Romanian)</span> <a href="/wiki/Garabet_Ibr%C4%83ileanu" title="Garabet Ibrăileanu">Garabet Ibrăileanu</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Spiritul_critic_%C3%AEn_cultura_rom%C3%A2neasc%C4%83:Spiritul_critic_%C3%AEn_Muntenia_-_Critica_social%C4%83_extrem%C4%83:_Caragiale"><i>Spiritul critic în cultura românească: Spiritul critic în Muntenia – Critica socială extremă: Caragiale</i></a> (wikisource)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. I, pg. 308</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 204–205</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Binder, "Vlachs: a Peaceful Balkan People", in <i>Mediterranean Quarterly</i>, Volume 15, Number 4, Fall 2004.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, pg. 7</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-adevcasele-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-adevcasele_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adevcasele_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adevcasele_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adevcasele_29-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adevcasele_29-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adevcasele_29-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adevcasele_29-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adevcasele_29-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adevcasele_29-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adevcasele_29-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Romanian)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adevarul.ro/articole/casele-lui-caragiale/5553">"Casele lui Caragiale"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080312130811/http://www.adevarul.ro/articole/casele-lui-caragiale/5553">Archived</a> 12 March 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, in <i><a href="/wiki/Adev%C4%83rul" title="Adevărul">Adevărul</a></i>, 30 January 2002.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, pg. 6</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alexandru Vlad, "Gramatica diavolului", in <i><a href="/wiki/Vatra_(literary_magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vatra (literary magazine)">Vatra</a></i>, 3-4/2005, pg. 2</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Mîndra,_p._272-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mîndra,_p._272_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mîndra,_p._272_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, p. 272</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 126; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 176</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._192-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._192_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._192_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._192_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 192</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 126</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, pg. 272; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 176</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, pp. 6–8, 272</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Mîndra,_p._9-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mîndra,_p._9_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mîndra,_p._9_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, pg. 9</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 6–7; Mîndra, pp. 8, 272; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 176</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, pp. 8, 272; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 177</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._6-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._6_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._6_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._6_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 6</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 55; Ornea, pg. 213</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 8, 18–19, 270–271; Mîndra, pg. 8; Ornea, pg. 216</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pg. 128; Cioculescu, pp. 18–19, 270–271; Ornea, pp. 215–216</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, pp. 9, 272; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 177</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Perpessicius, pp. 150, 190, 235–236, 290–291; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 176–77.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, pp. 9, 272</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 60</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 18, 60; Mîndra, pg. 9</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 19–21; Ornea, pp. 205–206, 209–217</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Mîndra,_p._273-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mîndra,_p._273_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mîndra,_p._273_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, pg. 273</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._52-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._52_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._52_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 52</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 52–53; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 177.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._177-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._177_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._177_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 177</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 60–61</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Perpessicius, pg. 50</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 17–21; Mîndra, pp. 9, 273; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 177–178</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, pp. 10, 273; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 178</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._178-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._178_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._178_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._178_59-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._178_59-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 178</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 186–187; Mîndra, p. 9</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 92; Perpessicius, pp. 238–239; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 178</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Perpessicius, pp. 238–239</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 18–19, 59–60, 59–60</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._20-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._20_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._20_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 20</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, p. 273; Ornea, p. 200; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 147, 178, 224–225</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Ornea,_p._246-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ornea,_p._246_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ornea,_p._246_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, p. 246</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._147-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._147_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._147_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 147</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pp. 246–247</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, p. 247</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 53</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 53–54</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 62</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, p. 10</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 178–179</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 66, 150</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 75; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 178–179</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 76</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 9, 179</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 61, 179–180</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 397–398; Vol. II, pp. 9, 110, 136–137</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pp. 151–258; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 305, 398; Vol. II, pp. 9, 136–137, 221</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pp. 151–258; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 19</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 10, 61</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._21-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._21_84-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._21_84-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._21_84-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 21</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Ornea,_p._200-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ornea,_p._200_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ornea,_p._200_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ornea,_p._200_85-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pg. 200</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 184–186; Mîndra, pg. 273; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 180</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 184–186</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 180, 186, 190</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 190–191; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 180, 186</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 186, 190–194.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._323-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._323_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._323_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._323_91-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 323</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._180-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._180_92-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._180_92-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._180_92-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._180_92-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._180_92-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 180</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 5–6; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 82, 117, 180</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 115</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ciupală, pg. 25; Perpessicius, pg. 277; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 180</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 313; Ciupală, pg. 25; Perpessicius, pp. 277, 290</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 313</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 149–150</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pg. 150</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 150–152</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 280; Perpessicius, pg. 148; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 150</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 278–79, 280</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 280</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 308, 362; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 188</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._188-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._188_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._188_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._188_105-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 188</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pp. 227–228; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 180</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pg. 228</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 359, 366, 375</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 27–28; Ornea, pg. 24; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 335–336, 401, 409; Vol. II, pp. 61, 180</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 28–29; Ornea, pp. 9, 20, 24; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 334, 335–336, 401; Vol. II, pp. 61–62, 180</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 28–29; Ornea, pp. 20, 24, 39; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 332, 409; Vol. II, pp. 61–62, 64, 69</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pp. 31–32</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pp. 319–320; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 334, 335–336, 401, 409–410</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-dbrghestmet-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dbrghestmet_114-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dbrghestmet_114-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Romanian)</span> <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Dobrogeanu-Gherea" title="Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea">Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Asupra_esteticii_metafizice_%C5%9Fi_%C5%9Ftiin%C5%A3ifice"><i>Asupra esteticii metafizice şi ştiinţifice</i></a> (wikisource)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 29–33</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 21; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 180–181</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._181-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._181_117-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._181_117-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._181_117-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._181_117-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 181</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 136; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 181</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 136</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Perpessicius, pg. 239; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 181</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._182-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._182_121-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._182_121-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._182_121-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._182_121-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 182</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._367-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._367_122-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._367_122-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 367</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 124, 129–132; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 182</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 130</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 124, 130–131; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 182</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._130-131-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._130-131_126-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._130-131_126-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 130–131</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._131-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._131_127-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._131_127-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._131_127-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 131</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 124, 131</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 124; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 182</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Perpessicius, p. 190</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Perpessicius, pp. 190, 191, 194, 235, 290, 300</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Perpessicius, p. 138</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 182–183</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 21; Mîndra, p. 274; Ornea, p. 200; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 183</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, p. 200; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 183</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._183-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._183_136-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._183_136-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._183_136-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._183_136-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._183_136-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 183</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 22; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 183, 184</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Mîndra,_p_p._184-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mîndra,_p_p._184_138-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mîndra,_p_p._184_138-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, p. 274; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 184</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 135</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 23; Mîndra, p. 274; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 184</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, pp. 10–11, 274; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 183</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 183–184</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._184-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._184_143-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._184_143-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._184_143-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 184</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 40–41; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 185</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 185</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._38-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._38_146-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._38_146-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 38</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 23–24; Ornea, pp. 207–208; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 185</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 10, 27</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 23–24</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 23</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 23–24; Ciupală, pp. 104–105</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ciupală, pp. 104–105</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._24-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._24_153-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._24_153-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._24_153-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 24</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 24–25; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 185</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 126; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 187</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 125–126</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 25–26; Ornea, pg. 208; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 185</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 25–27</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 26</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 25–28, 271; Mîndra, pg. 274; Ornea, pp. 203–204; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 185–186; Vol. III, pg. 281</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._186-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._186_161-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._186_161-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._186_161-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._186_161-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 186</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 27</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 63, 84–85</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-cpavelescu-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cpavelescu_164-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cpavelescu_164-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Romanian)</span> <a href="/wiki/Cincinat_Pavelescu" title="Cincinat Pavelescu">Cincinat Pavelescu</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Amintiri_literare_%28Ion_Luca_Caragiale%29"><i>Amintiri literare (Ion Luca Caragiale)</i></a> (wikisource)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 93, 293–311</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 10; Ornea, pg. 208; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 187</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 10; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 187</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_pg._187-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_pg._187_168-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 187</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 28; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 187–188</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 187–188</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 8; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 187</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 8, 88–89, 141</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 124; Mîndra, pg. 274</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._124-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._124_174-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._124_174-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 124</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cioculescu,_pp._188,_373-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_pp._188,_373_175-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_pp._188,_373_175-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 132–133; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 188, 373</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 133–140; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 188, 373–374, 387</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 133; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 188, 373</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 124, 133; Mîndra, pp. 16, 274; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 188</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 133</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 133–140; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 374</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 100–101; Cioculescu, pp. 136–137</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 137; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 374</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._374-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._374_183-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._374_183-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 374</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 137–138</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 308; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 188</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 308, 362</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 352, 357–358, 360–362, 363–364</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 188, 198–199</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 222–231; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 203</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._308-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._308_190-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._308_190-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 308</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 308; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 188, 198</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-blagarol-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-blagarol_192-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blagarol_192-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blagarol_192-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blagarol_192-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blagarol_192-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blagarol_192-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blagarol_192-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blagarol_192-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blagarol_192-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blagarol_192-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blagarol_192-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Romanian)</span> Iulia Blaga, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.romanialibera.ro/a89620/casele-lui-i-l-caragiale-de-la-berlin.html">"Casele lui I.L. Caragiale de la Berlin"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080801092907/http://www.romanialibera.ro/a89620/casele-lui-i-l-caragiale-de-la-berlin.html">Archived</a> 1 August 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, in <i><a href="/wiki/Rom%C3%A2nia_Liber%C4%83" class="mw-redirect" title="România Liberă">România Liberă</a></i>, 12 March 2007</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 308–309</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 122, 209, 217; Perpessicius, p. 442</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 120, 122–123, 250, 262; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 188</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 250, 262</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 209–210, 231–236, 259; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 189, 198</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 281</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 241–242</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 12–16</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 259</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 68</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 94–95, 117–119, 120, 122–123, 208–311; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 189</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 96–97; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 80, 260, 278, 279, 297, 301–302, 364; Ornea, p. 228</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 28–29, 119–124; Ornea, p. 228; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 189</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 189</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 28–29, 121, 123, 268–271; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 189–190</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, p. 228; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 190</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 301; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 190–191</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 28–29, 121, 127, 268; Mîndra, p. 275; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 189</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 28, 121, 268</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 28; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 189</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 123–124</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-215"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 28, 260–261, 301</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-216"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 28, 46</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-217"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 28, 47–48, 268</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-218"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 304; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 191</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-219"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 27–28, 29–30; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 191</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 29–30, 271–273; Ornea, p. 208; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 191</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-221"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 272–273; Ornea, p. 208; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 191, 192</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 365, 368</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 14–16</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-224"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 191</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. I, p. 313; Vol. II, pp. 191, 205</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-226"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Călinescu, pp. 181–182; Cioculescu, pp. 203–207, 262; Vianu, Vol. I, p. 313</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Călinescu,_p._181-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Călinescu,_p._181_227-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Călinescu,_p._181_227-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Călinescu,_p._181_227-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Călinescu, p. 181</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 313–314; Vol. II, p. 205</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Mîndra,_p._25-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mîndra,_p._25_229-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mîndra,_p._25_229-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mîndra,_p._25_229-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, p. 25</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 126–127; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-231"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 250; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 191</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-232"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 191–192</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192; Vol. III, pp. 74, 75–77</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-234"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 31; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-235"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 31</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-236"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 69; Mîndra, p. 25; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-237"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 267–268; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 192</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-238"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, p. 25; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 192–193</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-239"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 375</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._175-240"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._175_240-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._175_240-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 175</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-241"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Călinescu, pg. 179; Cazimir (1967), pp. 45–46, 49, 58; Cioculescu, pp. 5, 10, 93, 96, 107–110; Vianu, Vol. I, p. 310; Vol. II, pp. 201–202, 203–204</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-242"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 45–46</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-243"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 96, 109–110</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._I,_p._310-244"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._I,_p._310_244-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._I,_p._310_244-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. I, pg. 310</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-245"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 107–108; Vianu, Vol. I, pg. 310</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-246"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, pg. 269</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-247"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 36–38; Cioculescu, pg. 16; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 65</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-248"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Călinescu, pg. 181; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 307–308; Vol. II, pg. 195</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-249"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 46–48</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-250"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. I, pg. 311; Vol. II, pg. 204</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-251"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, pg. 270; Vianu, Vol. I, pg. 311; Vol. II, pp. 203–204</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._205-252"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._205_252-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._205_252-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._205_252-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._205_252-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 205</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-253"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. III, pg. 14</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-254"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 206</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-255"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. I, pg. 314</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._187-256"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._187_256-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 187</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-257"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 9; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 193–194, 196</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-258"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pp. 202–204, 228</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-259"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pg. 203</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-260"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pp. 202–203</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-261"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 167, 308–309</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._9-262"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._9_262-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._9_262-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 9</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-263"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 9, 264</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-264"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pp. 205, 211, 291</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-265"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 179–180; Ornea, pp. 209–217</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-266"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pp. 211–213</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-267"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pp. 210–217</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-268"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pg. 212</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-269"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pp. 217–218</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-270"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pg. 217</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-271"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 30–31</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-272"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, p. 224</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Ornea,_p._226-273"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ornea,_p._226_273-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ornea,_p._226_273-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ornea,_p._226_273-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, p. 226</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-274"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 68, 216, 252–253</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-275"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pp. 228–229</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-276"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 22–23, 29, 121, 304</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._22-277"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._22_277-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._22_277-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._22_277-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 22</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-278"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 269, 271; Ornea, pp. 206–209</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-279"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 271–273; Ornea, p. 208</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-280"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), p. 54</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-281"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. I, p. 312; Vol. II, pp. 184, 199</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-282"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 41–43; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 185</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-283"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 253</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-284"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 28, 305</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._7-285"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._7_285-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._7_285-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 7</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-286"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Călinescu, pg. 180; Cioculescu, pg. 7; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 204</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-287"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Călinescu, pg. 180; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 204</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-288"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 63–64, 67, 134</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-289"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 134</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-290"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. III, pg. 281</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-291"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 67</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-mateicalinescu-292"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mateicalinescu_292-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mateicalinescu_292-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Matei_C%C4%83linescu" title="Matei Călinescu">Matei Călinescu</a>, "Prefață", in <a href="/wiki/Ion_Minulescu" title="Ion Minulescu">Ion Minulescu</a>, <i>Romanțe pentru mai târziu și alte poezii</i>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Editura_pentru_literatur%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Editura pentru literatură (page does not exist)">Editura pentru literatură</a>, Bucharest, 1967, pg. XIV; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/6434366">6434366</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-293"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 66</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-294"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Tudor_Arghezi" title="Tudor Arghezi">Tudor Arghezi</a>, <i>Scrieri. Proze</i>, <a href="/wiki/Editura_Minerva" title="Editura Minerva">Editura Minerva</a>, Bucharest, 1985, pg. 621; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32599658">32599658</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-295"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, p. 11</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-296"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 22, 64</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-297"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 23, 46–47; Ornea, pp. 208–209</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-298"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, p. 209</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-299"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 194</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-300"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 194–195</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-301"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 43, 67</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-302"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 271</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-303"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-303">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 243–246</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-304"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 240</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-305"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-305">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 245–246</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-306"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-306">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 246–248</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-307"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-307">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 6, 7–8; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 193</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-308"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-308">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 193</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-309"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-309">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 118</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-310"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-310">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 118–119</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-311"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-311">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 312, 313–314; Vol. II, pp. 198, 205</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-312"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-312">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pp. 64, 221–223, 229; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 312–313; Vol. II, pp. 198–200</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-313"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-313">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pp. 221–223; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 199–200</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-314"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-314">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pg. 229</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-315"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-315">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pg. 71</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._199-316"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._199_316-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._199_316-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 199</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-317"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 6–7; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 195</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._196-318"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._196_318-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._196_318-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 196</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-319"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-319">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 190</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._201-320"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._201_320-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._201_320-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._201_320-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 201</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-321"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-321">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. I, p. 314; Vol. II, pp. 197–198; Vol. III, pp. 74, 75–76</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-322"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-322">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. I, p. 314; Vol. II, pp. 200–201</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-323"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-323">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 200</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cazimir_1967,_p._44-324"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cazimir_1967,_p._44_324-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cazimir_1967,_p._44_324-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), p. 44</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-325"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-325">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 309–310; Vol. II, pp. 200–201</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-326"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-326">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 309–310; Vol. II, p. 200</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-327"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-327">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, p. 221</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-328"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-328">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, pp. 269–270</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-329"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-329">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Călinescu, p. 183</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-330"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-330">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 201–202</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._202-331"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._202_331-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vianu,_Vol._II,_p._202_331-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 202</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-332"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-332">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), p. 143; Ornea, p. 221; Vianu, Vol. II, p. 202</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-333"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-333">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. I, p. 312</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Mîndra,_p._271-334"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mîndra,_p._271_334-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mîndra,_p._271_334-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, p. 271</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Călinescu,_p._179-335"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Călinescu,_p._179_335-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Călinescu,_p._179_335-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Călinescu,_p._179_335-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Călinescu, p. 179</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-336"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-336">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, p. 50</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-337"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-337">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 454–455</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-338"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-338">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 55–56; Cioculescu, pp. 56–59, 83–84, 85–88, 113</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-339"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-339">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 55, 112–119; Cioculescu, pp. 83–84</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-340"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-340">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 55, 133–134; Cioculescu, pp. 85–88</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-341"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-341">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 179–180, 183–184; Ornea, pp. 210–211</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-342"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-342">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pp. 217–221</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-343"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-343">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pp. 217–219</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-344"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-344">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 143–144; Ornea, pp. 220–221</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-345"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-345">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), p. 144</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-346"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-346">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 136–137</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-347"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-347">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 334; Ornea, p. 215</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-348"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-348">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 334</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-349"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-349">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), p. 129; Cioculescu, p. 337</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-350"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-350">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 155–157</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-351"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-351">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 254</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-352"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-352">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 80; Vianu, Vol. I, p. 309; Vol. II, p. 201</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-353"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-353">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 143–149</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-354"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-354">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 80–81</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-355"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-355">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), p. 55</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-356"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-356">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), p. 146</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-357"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-357">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pp. 222–224</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-358"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-358">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pp. 222–223</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-359"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-359">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, p. 223</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-360"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-360">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, p. 267</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._89-361"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._89_361-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._89_361-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 89</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-362"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-362">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Călinescu, p. 180; Cioculescu, p. 89</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-363"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-363">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Călinescu, pp. 179–180; Cazimir (1967), p. 56</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-364"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-364">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 83–88, 89–92</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-365"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-365">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 149–157; Cioculescu, pp. 89–92</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-366"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-366">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 149–155</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-367"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-367">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 137–138</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-368"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-368">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 113, 114</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-369"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-369">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ornea, pp. 223–224</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cioculescu,_p._114-370"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._114_370-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cioculescu,_p._114_370-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 114</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-371"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-371">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 204</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-372"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-372">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 56–57</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-373"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-373">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 279</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-374"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-374">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 63–64</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-375"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-375">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 96–101; Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 310–311, 314</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-376"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-376">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pg. 98</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cazimir_1967,_p._62-377"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cazimir_1967,_p._62_377-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cazimir_1967,_p._62_377-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pg. 62</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-378"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-378">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 82–89</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-379"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-379">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 89–93; Vianu, Vol. II, pg. 88</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-380"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-380">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 181–182</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-381"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-381">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 73–76, 79</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-382"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-382">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 70–72</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-383"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-383">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pg. 72; Mîndra, pg. 32</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-384"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-384">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 102–103</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cazimir_1967,_p._103-105-385"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cazimir_1967,_p._103-105_385-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cazimir_1967,_p._103-105_385-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cazimir (1967), pp. 103–105</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-386"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-386">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Romanian)</span> <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Dobrogeanu-Gherea" title="Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea">Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Dl_Panu_asupra_criticii_%C5%9Fi_literaturii"><i>Dl Panu asupra criticii și literaturii</i></a> (wikisource)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-387"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-387">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. I, pp. 313–14.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-388"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-388">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 203–204, 240–241; Vol. III, p. 246</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-389"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-389">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, p. 203</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-boiaborderland-390"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-boiaborderland_390-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-boiaborderland_390-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Lucian_Boia" title="Lucian Boia">Lucian Boia</a>, <i>Romania: Borderland of Europe</i>, Reaktion Books, London, 2001, p. 247. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86189-103-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-86189-103-2">1-86189-103-2</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-391"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-391">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mîndra, p. 33</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-392"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-392">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 325–342</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-393"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-393">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, p. 172</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-394"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-394">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cristea-Enache, chapters "Filo-logia şi alte iubiri", "Dumitru Radu Popa. American Dream", "Mircea Cărtărescu. Levantul pe orizontală", "Ioan Lăcustă. Un prozator profund", "Horia Gârbea. Un computer cu talent"</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-395"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-395">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sarah Stanton, Martin Banham, <i>The Cambridge Paperback Guide to Theatre</i>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, Cambridge, 1996, p. 56. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-44654-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-44654-6">0-521-44654-6</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-396"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-396">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 178, 197; Vol. III, pp. 75, 137</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-397"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-397">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 28, 70–71, 111, 121–122, 367, 368; Vianu, Vol. II, pp. 184, 195</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-398"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-398">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 314, 315</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-399"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-399">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 321–323</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-400"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-400">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 43, 198, 277, 316</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-401"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-401">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 312–316</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-402"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-402">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Perpessicius, pp. 277, 290</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-403"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-403">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cioculescu, pp. 351, 358–359</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-anulcaragiale-404"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-anulcaragiale_404-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-anulcaragiale_404-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Romanian)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academiaromana.ro/com2002/pag_com02_0130.htm">"Anul Caragiale"</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Academy" title="Romanian Academy">Romanian Academy</a> site. Retrieved 26 September 2007.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-405"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-405">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Romanian)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.antena3.ro/Portretele-lui-Caragiale-expuse-din-nou-la-Madrid_clt_38861_ext.html">"Portretele lui Caragiale expuse din nou la Madrid"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150923172359/http://www.antena3.ro/Portretele-lui-Caragiale-expuse-din-nou-la-Madrid_clt_38861_ext.html">Archived</a> 23 September 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, at <a href="/wiki/Antena_3_(Romania)" class="mw-redirect" title="Antena 3 (Romania)">Antena 3</a>, 11 September 2007. Retrieved 26 September 2007.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-406"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-406">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Romanian)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110515132028/http://www.tvr.ro/articol.php?id=10352&c=47">"Caragiale în Guiness Book"</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged January 2013">dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup> at the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Television" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Television">Romanian Television</a> site. Retrieved 26 September 2007.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-407"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-407">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Romanian)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://museum.ici.ro/muntenia/ploiesti/romanian/muzeul_memorial_ilcaragiale.htm">Muzeul Memorial I. L. Caragiale</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090129164810/http://museum.ici.ro/muntenia/ploiesti/romanian/muzeul_memorial_ilcaragiale.htm">Archived</a> 29 January 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://museum.ici.ro/"><i>Muzee din regiunile României</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081019183551/http://museum.ici.ro/">Archived</a> 19 October 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 25 September 2007.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-408"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-408">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.muzee-dambovitene.ro/en/casa_caragiale.php">The Memorial House "Ion Luca Caragiale"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080509075634/http://www.muzee-dambovitene.ro/en/casa_caragiale.php">Archived</a> 9 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.muzee-dambovitene.ro/en/"><i>Museums of Dâmbovița</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081211093527/http://www.muzee-dambovitene.ro/en/">Archived</a> 11 December 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 25 September 2007.</span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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href="/w/index.php?title=Ion_Luca_Caragiale&action=edit&section=36"title="Edit section: References"
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</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_C%C4%83linescu" title="George Călinescu">George Călinescu</a>, <i>Istoria literaturii române. Compendiu</i>, <a href="/wiki/Editura_Minerva" title="Editura Minerva">Editura Minerva</a>, Bucharest, 1983</li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%C8%98tefan_Cazimir&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ștefan Cazimir (page does not exist)">Ștefan Cazimir</a>,
<ul><li><i>Caragiale: universul comic</i>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Editura_pentru_Literatur%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Editura pentru Literatură (page does not exist)">Editura pentru Literatură</a>, Bucharest, 1967. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7287882">7287882</a></li>
<li><i>I.L. Caragiale faţă cu kitschul</i>, <a href="/wiki/Cartea_Rom%C3%A2neasc%C4%83" title="Cartea Românească">Cartea Românească</a>, Bucharest, 1988. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/21523836">21523836</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/%C8%98erban_Cioculescu" title="Șerban Cioculescu">Șerban Cioculescu</a>, <i>Caragialiana</i>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Editura_Eminescu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Editura Eminescu (page does not exist)">Editura Eminescu</a>, Bucharest, 1974. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/6890267">6890267</a></li>
<li>Alin Ciupală, <i>Femeia în societatea românească a secolului al XIX-lea</i>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Editura_Meridiane&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Editura Meridiane (page does not exist)">Editura Meridiane</a>, Bucharest, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/973-33-0481-6" title="Special:BookSources/973-33-0481-6">973-33-0481-6</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Daniel_Cristea-Enache&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Daniel Cristea-Enache (page does not exist)">Daniel Cristea-Enache</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://editura.liternet.ro/carte/96/Daniel-Cristea-Enache/Concert-de-deschidere.html"><i>Concert de deschidere</i></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://editura.liternet.ro/">LiterNet</a> e-book, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/973-8475-67-8" title="Special:BookSources/973-8475-67-8">973-8475-67-8</a></li>
<li>Vicu Mîndra, in I.L. Caragiale, <i>Nuvele şi povestiri</i>, <a href="/wiki/Editura_Tineretului" class="mw-redirect" title="Editura Tineretului">Editura Tineretului</a>, Bucharest, 1966. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/42663344">42663344</a>:
<ul><li>"Prefaţă", p. 5–33</li>
<li>"Aprecieri critice", p. 267–271</li>
<li>"Tablou biobibliografic", p. 272–275</li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Z._Ornea" class="mw-redirect" title="Z. Ornea">Z. Ornea</a>, <i>Junimea şi junimismul</i>, Vol. II, Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/973-21-0562-3" title="Special:BookSources/973-21-0562-3">973-21-0562-3</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perpessicius" title="Perpessicius">Perpessicius</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070309131642/http://www.mlr.ro/PDF_1/PDF/Eminesciana_Perpessicius.pdf"><i>Studii eminesciene</i></a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Museum_of_Romanian_Literature&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Museum of Romanian Literature (page does not exist)">Museum of Romanian Literature</a>, Bucharest, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/973-8031-34-6" title="Special:BookSources/973-8031-34-6">973-8031-34-6</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_Vianu" title="Tudor Vianu">Tudor Vianu</a>, <i>Scriitori români</i>, Vol. I-III, Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1970–1971. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7431692">7431692</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dan_Ionescu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dan Ionescu (page does not exist)">Dan Ionescu</a>, <i>Absurdul în opera lui I. L. Caragiale</i>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Editura_Junimea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Editura Junimea (page does not exist)">Editura Junimea</a>, Iași, 2018. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-973-37-2177-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-973-37-2177-2">978-973-37-2177-2</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<div lang="ro" style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ro:Autor:Ion_Luca_Caragiale" class="extiw" title="s:ro:Autor:Ion Luca Caragiale">Ion Luca Caragiale (original works in Romanian)</a></b> </div></div></div>
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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ion_Luca_Caragiale" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ion Luca Caragiale">Ion Luca Caragiale</a></span>.</div></div>
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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/39773">Works by Ion Luca Caragiale</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Caragiale%2C%20Ion%20Luca%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Caragiale%2C%20Ion%20L%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Caragiale%2C%20I%2E%20L%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Ion%20Luca%20Caragiale%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Ion%20L%2E%20Caragiale%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22I%2E%20L%2E%20Caragiale%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Caragiale%2C%20Ion%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Ion%20Caragiale%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Ion%20Luca%20Caragiale%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Ion%20L%2E%20Caragiale%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22I%2E%20L%2E%20Caragiale%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22I%2E%20Luca%20Caragiale%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Caragiale%2C%20Ion%20Luca%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Caragiale%2C%20Ion%20L%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Caragiale%2C%20I%2E%20L%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Caragiale%2C%20I%2E%20Luca%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Ion%20Caragiale%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Caragiale%2C%20Ion%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Ion%20Luca%20Caragiale%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Ion%20L%2E%20Caragiale%22%20OR%20title%3A%22I%2E%20L%2E%20Caragiale%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Ion%20Caragiale%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Ion%20Luca%20Caragiale%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Ion%20L%2E%20Caragiale%22%20OR%20description%3A%22I%2E%20L%2E%20Caragiale%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Caragiale%2C%20Ion%20Luca%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Caragiale%2C%20Ion%20L%2E%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Ion%20Caragiale%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Caragiale%2C%20Ion%22%29%20OR%20%28%221852-1912%22%20AND%20Caragiale%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Ion Luca Caragiale</a> at <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/8575">Works by Ion Luca Caragiale</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.facebook.com/I.L.Caragiale">Ion Luca Caragiale</a> (official Facebook page)</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tnb.kappa.ro/index.html">National Theater Bucharest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221004232243/http://tnb.kappa.ro/index.html">Archived</a> 4 October 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (official site)</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.voceabasarabiei.com/caragiale/index.html">The Nenea Iancu Festival in Chișinău</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607091826/http://www.voceabasarabiei.com/caragiale/index.html">Archived</a> 7 June 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (official site)</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080105152727/http://www.caricatura.ro/expo.htm">Collection of Caragiale's caricatures, at Caricatura.ro</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0135905/">Ion Luca Caragiale</a> at <a href="/wiki/IMDb_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="IMDb (identifier)">IMDb</a></li></ul>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1061467846">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q315132#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q315132#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q315132#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/10304/">FAST</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000081405122">ISNI</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/61584911">VIAF</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90534782">Norway</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1228870">Spain</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12155330m">France</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12155330m">BnF data</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058530395206706">Catalonia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118667068">Germany</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Caragiale, Ion Luca"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/IEIV005360">Italy</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007259587805171">Israel</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n50030893">United States</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/tr5772hc39x6ljt">Sweden</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000172987&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20010602654&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35837465">Australia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.nlg.gr/resource/authority/record61887">Greece</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC199633204">Korea</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000168459&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068932952">Netherlands</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810608810405606">Poland</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/115934">Portugal</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA08883449?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118667068.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1109735">Trove</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6990fkq">SNAC</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027986632">IdRef</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
